The Republic of Ireland occupies about five sixths of the island of Ireland, which lies across the Irish Sea from Great Britain. The British controlled the area for about 750 years, until 1921, when they made southern Ireland a dominion. The link with Great Britain ended when Ireland became a republic in 1949. Northern Ireland, however, which occupies the rest of the island, has remained a political part of the United Kingdom.
   The Republic of Ireland covers 27,137 square miles (70,285 square kilometers). It measures a maximum distance of 273 miles (440 kilometers) from north to south, and 186 miles (300 kilometers) from east to west. The Republic of Ireland consists of four provinces--Leinster, Munster, Connaught (Connacht), and part of Ulster--which are divided into 27 counties. Six counties of Ulster make up Northern Ireland. In 1995 the Republic of Ireland had a population of 3,590,000, compared with 1,631,800 for Northern Ireland. Many people have left Ireland to live elsewhere during the last century because of rural overpopulation, few jobs, and poor harvests of potatoes, by far the most important crop. The population of the entire island decreased steadily from about 8,200,000 in 1841 to 4,200,000 in 1961. Today, as a result of the vast migrations, more Irish live outside Ireland than in it. More than 4,700,000 people have migrated from the island to the United States since 1820. Large numbers of Irish also live in Great Britain and in most of the Commonwealth countries.
   Since the early 1960s the population decline has been reversed, and Ireland's economy has changed rapidly from an agricultural to an industrial base. In the mid-1990s about a quarter of the work force was employed in manufacturing, mining, and construction, and about a tenth in agriculture. The shift from agriculture to industry has been greater in Dublin, the capital and largest city, and in the eastern and southern sections of the country than in the west.

The Land and Climate
Much of the interior is a relatively level plain surrounded by low mountains, particularly in the west and south. Most of the central plain is less than 500 feet (150 meters) above sea level, but the coastal mountains rise to more than 2,000 feet (600 meters) high. The highest point of 3,414 feet (1,041 meters) is in the mountains of Kerry in the southwest.
   The character of the land surface and soils are the result of early activity by glaciers. The central plain has glacial ridges, and the surrounding mountains were severely eroded during the Ice Age. The glaciers also indented Ireland's coasts into many bays and spectacular rocky headlands. Rocky islands fringe the bays in the west and south.
   The glaciers also left behind many heaths and bogs, which are poorly drained lands. The River Shannon, the longest in Ireland, flows sluggishly through the central plain on its way to the Atlantic Ocean. In many places the river has been dammed by nature or artificially to create loughs, or lakes. Small amounts of hydroelectric power are produced as a result of these dams. Peat from the heaths and bogs has long been used as fuel in Irish homes and industry. The other main rivers that drain the interior are the Blackwater and the Barrow in the southeast, the Boyne in the northeast, and the Corrib in the west.
   The soils of Ireland are generally infertile. They are more productive in the eastern sections, particularly near Dublin. Much of the country is grassland used by grazing herds of cattle and sheep.
   Ireland's maritime climate is moderated by prevailing southwesterly winds. These winds blow over the warm drifting waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, keeping the temperatures mild during the winter and cool in summer. Rain is frequent and relatively abundant. The highest peaks in the western mountains receive about 100 inches (250 centimeters) of rain annually. The driest areas, around Dublin in the east, have about 30 inches (75 centimeters). Temperatures average about 42o F (5o C) during the coolest month, February, and about 60o F (15o C) in the warmest month, August.

Natural Resources, Plants, and Animals
Ireland lacks extensive mineral deposits, but important discoveries of lead and zinc created a small mining boom in the late 1970s. Small amounts of silver, sulfur, and barite are also produced.
   Exploration for natural oil and gas on the offshore continental shelf began in the late 1960s. One commercially exploitable natural gas field went into production in 1978. The country has some poor quality coal, but peat is widely used as a fuel. Peat comes from peat moss, which consists of undecayed or partially decomposed plant matter at or near the surface of bogs. Peat moss varies from a few inches to 50 feet (15 meters) deep, and it covers about a tenth of Ireland's land area. The nation produced about 6 million tons of peat annually in the early 1990s.
   The plant and animal life of Ireland has been influenced by both the climate and the island's separation from other land masses. Most of the island is covered by mosses, lichens, and grasses. There are relatively few trees. The original hardwood forests were cleared long ago for agriculture or cut for lumber, and most of the present softwood forests were planted by the government. Only about 5 percent of the land area consists of woodland, compared with 69 percent in permanent pasture and 14 percent in cropland.
   Waterfowl are abundant, and Ireland has rich fishing grounds, particularly off the west coast. Herring, whiting, and mackerel are common saltwater species, and salmon and trout live in the inland rivers and lakes. The moles and weasels of Great Britain are not found in Ireland, and the island has no snakes.

The People
The Irish are descendants primarily of the ancient Celts, but the Vikings, Normans, and English contributed to the ethnic nature of the people. Centuries of English rule largely eliminated the use of the ancient Gaelic, or Irish, language. Since Ireland became independent in 1922, the government has attempted to revive Gaelic by requiring its use in schools. English is the dominant language in the educational system and is spoken throughout Ireland except in certain areas of the west coast. Government documents are printed in both Gaelic and English.
   About 92 percent of the people are Roman Catholics. Most of the rest are Anglicans and belong to the Church of Ireland. The nation has no official religion. Roman Catholic priests and nuns are commonly seen in cities and villages throughout the country.
   In the early 1990s about 57 percent of Ireland's people lived in urban areas. The importance of cities has grown, especially since the late 1950s when the government began to carry out policies promoting industrialization. The largest cities after Dublin are Cork and Limerick
   The population of the area that now makes up the Republic of Ireland fell steadily from about 6,500,000 in 1841 to 2,800,000 in 1961. This decline had a major impact on the nature of the country and people, and it was caused largely by emigration from rural areas. About 1,200,000 people left Ireland soon after the terrible potato famine of 1846 to 1848, most of them to the United States. From 1853 to 1900 about 3,300,000 more left the country. Most of these people also went to the United States, but some settled in Great Britain. Young, unmarried adults made up a large percentage of those who emigrated, resulting in a significant decline in the nation's marriage and birth rates. This condition was reversed in the 1970s. During that period a slight decrease in the death rate, combined with more immigration than emigration resulted in considerable population growth.
   In Irish farm communities, houses were once made of dried peat or of stone, with thatched roofs. Today most of the farm homes are constructed of mortared stone or brick, with tile roofs. The house opens directly into the farmyard, where geese, chickens, pigs, and cattle are kept. The yard also has storage buildings for hay and other crops. A garden provides potatoes and other vegetables for the family, and dairy products are the chief items sold for income. Farm families cut peat to use as fuel for various purposes including heating and cooking, often over an open fire.
   The Irish have a rich literary and artistic heritage. Irish literature has been largely in English rather than Gaelic, however. The late 1800s and early 1900s, a period known as the Irish literary renaissance, produced such great writers as William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, George Augustus Moore, and Samuel Beckett. They presented Irish thought and life in a manner that gained international acclaim. Irish poet Seamus Heaney won the 1995 Nobel Prize for Literature. Irish theater is well established, and the Royal Hibernian Academy of Dublin has developed many Irish painters. High-quality craftwork on jewelry and religious objects, such as Celtic crosses, reflects an ancient artistic tradition.
   Folk songs and dances, along with traditional storytelling, are featured at folk festivals that help to preserve Ireland's way of life. The island's colorful customs have spread wherever the Irish have settled throughout the world.

The Economy
For centuries the Irish economy depended heavily upon agriculture, but industry has contributed an increasing share to the gross national product since the 1960s. In 1993 about 17 percent of the workforce was employed in manufacturing; 12 percent in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 18 percent in commerce, insurance, and finance; 6 percent in construction; and 47 percent in all other fields.
   Industry. The Industrial Development Authority, established in the 1950s, encouraged new industry from abroad. It granted such incentives as cash grants, tax concessions, and ready-to-operate factories to attract such industries. Most of the foreign industries manufacture such products as electronic equipment, computers, word-processing machines, pharmaceuticals and chemicals, textiles, plastics, and recreational goods. Most of these products are exported, and the value of manufactured goods exported in 1991 was worth 40 percent of the gross national product.
   Ireland's entry into the European Communities in 1973 was a great boon to the nation's economy. By 1978 Irish exports had gained duty-free access to the European Communities population market of 270 million people. Foreign companies, especially from the United States, established businesses or branch firms in Ireland to gain tax advantages in exporting to the European market. By 1990 about 850 foreign firms, 300 from the United States, owned operations in Ireland, resulting not only in new products and jobs, but also in additional skills, markets, and technology.
   The new manufacturing plants now dominate economically the traditional Irish industries that emphasize the processing of agricultural products. Meatpacking, dairy products, grain milling, and brewing and malting are widespread throughout the better farming areas of Ireland. In 1991 about 22 percent of the value of exports came from the processing of agricultural products. Membership in the European Communities (now the European Union) has stimulated the agricultural-processing industries, and cooperatives have promoted agricultural production and marketing.
   Agriculture. Ireland's agricultural activities consist largely of the grazing of cattle and sheep. The moderate, moist climate favors the growing of grass and hay, and farm animals can be outside for most of the year because of the mild winter temperatures. About 68 percent of the agricultural land of Ireland consists of permanent pasture. Membership in the European Union has encouraged Irish farmers to increase their efficiency by using better management and fertilization techniques.
   Farmers grow mostly grains on the 14 percent of the land that can be farmed. Barley, wheat, potatoes, and sugar beets are the main crops. Barley is the principal crop in terms of acreage. It is used by the brewing and distilling industries and as feed for farm animals. The raising of oats, once significant as a crop for horse-feed, has fallen with the declining use of these animals due to the increasing use of machines. The country was once heavily dependent on the potato crop, but Irish farmers have increased their plantings of other crops, and potato production has declined. Tobacco is grown in limited areas.
   The small family farm has long been the backbone of Irish agriculture. About 67 percent of the farms cover fewer than 50 acres (20 hectares), and another 25 percent are smaller than 20 acres (8 hectares). Approximately 90 percent of the farms are owner-occupied, compared with 62 percent for all of Europe. The number of people employed in agriculture continues to decrease as mechanization increases and young men and women find better-paying occupations in the cities. The number of agricultural workers in Ireland declined by about 50 percent between the years 1960 and 1991. Despite this trend, the amount and value of farm production has increased with better fertilization and management.
   Mining. Mineral exploration during the 1960s and early 1970s led to the discovery of a large deposit of zinc ore at Navan in northeast Ireland. Mining of this deposit began in 1977. Small amounts of gypsum, lead, copper, sulfur, silver, and barite are sometimes mined, providing needed employment opportunities in some of the poorest areas of western Ireland. Only about 1 percent of the workforce was employed in mining in 1993.
   Tourism. The tourist industry ranks as an important source of income for Ireland. About 15 percent of the country's workforce is directly or indirectly employed in tourism. In 1991 about 3,500,000 long-staying tourists visited the country. Most of them came from Great Britain, followed by Northern Ireland and the United States. Many tourists are relatives or friends of the millions of Irish people who emigrated to other parts of the world. Increasing numbers of visitors are drawn by the relative lack of commercialization in Ireland, the low cost of touring, good highways, charming rural landscape, historical attractions, and generally uncrowded character.
   Trade. The increased export of manufactured goods led the growth of Ireland's economy beginning in the 1970s. The chief imports are machinery and transportation equipment, followed by other basic manufactured items; and mineral fuels, mainly petroleum products. Food and livestock are important export items. The United Kingdom is Ireland's principal trading partner. Others include the United States, Germany, France, and the Benelux countries.

Transportation, Communication, and Education
Ireland is well served by highways, railways, airlines, and water transportation. The network of Irish roads, almost all of which are paved, totals more than 54,000 miles (86,900 kilometers). Regular rural bus routes extend to many small, isolated communities. In 1993, Ireland had one private automobile for every 4.1 people. Railroads run between Dublin and the country's larger cities and towns.
   Aer Lingus, the Irish international airline, has flights to and from European and transatlantic airports. Dublin, Limerick, and Cork have international airports, and Shannon Airport, near Limerick, was the world's first duty-free airport.
   Dublin and Cork are the principal harbors for international shipping. Passenger ships provide frequent connections with Wales and England.
   The government operates Ireland's television and radio facilities. The country has two television channels and three radio stations, one of which broadcasts in Gaelic. Every owner of a television set or radio pays an annual license fee. There are eight daily newspapers, five of which are published in Dublin. All the newspapers are in English.
   Irish children from 6 to 15 years old are required by law to go to school. The elementary schools are free. The secondary schools are private institutions, and most are operated by religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. Nevertheless, Irish secondary schools receive substantial government aid and are subject to inspection by the Department of Education. The administration of the nation's vocational schools resembles that of the secondary schools.
   The University of Dublin, or Trinity College, was founded in 1592, and the National University was established in Dublin in 1908. The National University also has branches in Galway and Cork. In addition, Ireland has ten regional technical colleges in the provincial centers of Athlone, Carlow, Cork, Dundalk, Galway, Letterkenny, Limerick, Sligo, Tralee, and Waterford. St. Patrick's College in Maynooth trains Roman Catholic priests but also admits other students. The National Institute for Higher Education, which offers mainly technological courses, has campuses in Dublin and Limerick. All the universities and colleges receive financial support from the government.

Government
The nation's first constitution went into effect in 1922, when its name was changed to the Irish Free State. In 1937, after a number of amendments, a new constitution was approved by the parliament and the people. It restored the name Ireland, or Eire in Gaelic, and provided for a president, elected every seven years; a cabinet called "the government," headed by a prime minister; and a parliament. The Irish parliament consists of a House of Representatives, called the Dail Eireann, and a Senate, called the Seanad Eireann. The 166 members of the Dail are elected by the people and the 60 members of the Seanad are selected from representatives of education, agriculture, labor, industry, and public administration. Citizens who are at least 18 years old may vote. Local government is in the hands of 27 county councils and the five county boroughs of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, and Waterford. These councils are responsible for planning, taxing, and other local government activities but not education or police functions.

History
The first inhabitants of the island of Ireland were hunters and fishers who arrived on the eastern coast from the European mainland in about 6000 BC. Later settlers brought knowledge of agriculture in about 3000 BC and skills in bronzeworking by about 2000 BC. Celts who came from Europe in about 300 BC dominated the earlier peoples, mainly because the Celts had ironworking knowledge.
   During its early period, Ireland had one of the more advanced civilizations of Western Europe. The people built hill forts and established minor kingdoms, and skilled artisans designed metalwork.
   Christianity had been established in Ireland by the beginning of the 5th century, before the arrival of the bishop Palladius from Gaul in 431 and the later arrival of St. Patrick. The monasteries established by St. Patrick and other missionaries enabled a world of classical learning to be introduced on the island, and this learning was later carried to many parts of Europe. During the 9th and early 10th centuries, Viking raiders overran the south and east coasts of Ireland. They ravaged the monasteries and churches and later became traders in the coastal towns. The Vikings were finally defeated in 1014 at Clontarf, near Dublin, but some remained in coastal settlements and were accepted by the Irish.
   Conquest by England.  The English conquest of Ireland began when a local ruler asked King Henry II and his barons to help him regain his kingdom. Some of the barons arrived first, in 1169, and Henry followed in 1171. Henry encouraged his followers to seize parts of the island and hold them as fiefs of the crown. Henry's descendants intermarried with the local population and increasingly adapted Irish customs. However, the English did not control the island effectively, and they regarded the Irish and the English-Irish as their enemies. The authority of the English crown was eventually restored over the entire island during the 16th century by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, who also attempted to suppress the Roman Catholic church.
   King James I settled English and Scottish Protestants in the northern province of Ulster. Roman Catholics in Ulster rebelled in 1641 and killed thousands of Protestant settlers. This revolt spread to the south but was put down by Oliver Cromwell from 1649 to 1650. He took much land and many rights away from Irish Catholics.
   James II, a Roman Catholic, tried to reverse the discriminatory policies of the preceding rulers. After being driven from the throne by the revolution of 1688, James went to France and then to Ireland. There he was welcomed by the Irish Catholics who hoped he could lead them in regaining their land. In 1690 James and the Irish were defeated by the Protestant forces of the English king William III in the battle of the Boyne. Protestants of the Church of England, or Anglicans, then dominated Ireland for about 150 years. Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants had few legal rights, and they could not vote or hold office. In 1801 the Act of Union joined Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom.
   Struggle for Home Rule. In 1823 the Catholics, led by Daniel O'Connell, began agitating for emancipation. In 1829 Parliament passed an act giving the Catholics political equality for most purposes. O'Connell then began a struggle to eliminate the Act of Union. This struggle turned into a movement later called Home Rule. However, such efforts were stifled by famine and mass emigration that were the result of a blight that destroyed Ireland's vital potato crop in the mid-1800s.
   Several attempts to put through Home Rule bills for Ireland failed during the late 1800s. The Catholics in southern Ireland were determined to have the right to Home Rule, but the Protestants in Ulster insisted on maintaining the Act of Union with Great Britain. In 1914 the British Parliament passed a Home Rule bill setting up a separate parliament for all Ireland, but World War I soon broke out and the Home Rule act was suspended.
   On Easter Monday in 1916 armed Irish Volunteers and members of the Citizen Army staged an unsuccessful rebellion in Dublin. The British executed 14 of the leaders, which aroused public support for an independent Ireland. In the 1918 elections Sinn Fein, the Irish revolutionary party, won most of the Irish seats. Sinn Fein had earlier pledged not to take their seats in the English Parliament, however, and after the election they set up an Irish parliament, the Dail Eireann, in Dublin. The Dail issued a declaration of independence and was headed by Eamon de Valera, a surviving leader of the Easter uprising
   The English tried to suppress the new government, and violence erupted between British troops and the Volunteers, who became the Irish Republican Army. In 1920 Ireland was partitioned, and separate parliaments were set up for northern and southern Ireland. Fighting continued until a truce was called in 1921. The terms of the truce established the southern part of Ireland as the Irish Free State, which became part of the Commonwealth. Renewed fighting broke out between the Irish who accepted the dominion status and those who demanded complete independence. A new constitution went into effect in 1937.
   The republic. In 1948 Eire seceded from the Commonwealth. The new Republic of Ireland was proclaimed on April 18, 1949. In 1973 the republic acknowledged British sovereignty over Northern Ireland as long as the majority of the people in the north agreed. Despite a brief ceasefire in the mid-1990s, fighting continued in Northern Ireland. Over Protestant opposition in Northern Ireland, Britain and the Republic of Ireland signed an agreement in 1985 that gave the latter a voice in Northern Ireland affairs. The republic's first female president, Mary Robinson, was inaugurated in December 1990. In the mid-1990s Ireland's economy grew by an average of more than 5 percent per year, well above those of the other nations of Western Europe. In 1997 Mary McAleese, a native of Belfast, Northern Ireland, succeeded Robinson and became the first person from Northern Ireland to be elected to the presidency of the republic. McAleese, running as the candidate of Ireland's most powerful party, Fianna Fail, captured a record-breaking 58.7 percent of the popular vote in a runoff election against Mary Banotti of the Fine Gael party.