The City of Edinburgh Council is committed to the principle of sustainable development. One of the Council's seven strategic aims which were announced shortly after its inception in 1996, is "To Promote A Healthy And Sustainable Environment".

How can Edinburgh put sustainability at the centre of its thinking for the future? The key to this is seen by the Council as "returning the city to people": ensuring that the city is a place that provides a quality of life that people will enjoy and want to participate in, rather than being a place to try and escape from. To achieve this, we need to establish a virtuous circle of economic health and environmental quality based on an urban form that:

• maintains and develops the city centre as the major employment, shopping and service focus of the region and as a place for people to live in.
• preserves the unique townscape of the city.
• changes the balance in the use of public space more towards social, leisure and commercial activities by reducing the dominance of movement needs, in particular car traffic. This requires concentrating on accessibility rather than movement for its own sake.
• focuses new development on compact centres well served by public transport.
• puts quality at the forefront of new development and urban renewal.
• develops a city based on urban villages or "natural neighbourhoods", that help meet local needs locally, and provide a greater sense of community.

The city centre is and should remain the core of the city’s activity. Edinburgh is fortunate in having a centre that not only has a unique townscape and architectural quality, but also retains a multitude of activities - including a large residential population, employment, shopping, leisure and culture, and tourism. It is the hub of the public transport system. As such, our policies must be directed towards maintaining its vibrancy and ensuring its accessibility to everyone, particularly those living in peripheral areas, and to maintaining it as a place that people want to live in.

Cities exist to bring people together for a vast range of activities. The interaction between these activities, both formal and informal, create the cross-fertilisation that make cities dynamic, vibrant and innovative. Such opportunities can be maximised by developing the city centre as the major hub of activity. The city centre provides the best opportunities for easy access by efficient and clean public transport, on foot and by bicycle, and the best potential for using public space for activities rather than simply for movement.

This, however, must be complimented by supporting and developing the city at the local level. Creating and maintaining viable communities within the urban villages, or "natural neighbourhoods," of the city. This is a vision of the City as a fractal system where the city is replicated in microcosm at the local level. This means, in theory, anything that can be put at the local level is located there and all other facilities are located in the city centre. The City Council is therefore developing the city at the strategic level, from the top down, and the "natural neighbourhood" level, from the bottom up. The key point is that both approaches are based on the same sustainable development principles.

The Environment White Paper : This Common Inheritance (1990), and the UK Sustainable Development Strategy (1994), which implements part of Agenda 21 of the Rio Summit, initiated a national commitment to environmental protection and enhancement and to ensuring that development and growth are sustainable. One of the Government's key objectives is the need "to increase the efficiency with which we use energy, at work and in our homes and in our cars and use of public transport". It is acknowledged that transport is the major single contributor to a range of air pollutants, especially in urban areas most prone to high air pollution. In light of the Government White Paper and the UK Sustainable Development Strategy, recent national planning policy guidelines give additional weight to these environmental considerations by recommending forms of development that are city focused; discouraging greenfield and car dependent growth. While these policies were developed by the previous government, the new administration is giving very much the same signals in this field, for example by the creation of the combined Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions.

• NPPG3 Land for Housing (Revised November 1996)

This guidance note is to assist planning authorities in meeting the requirement for new housing. It seeks to encourage brownfield development which can contribute towards the implementation of sustainability aims by better use of existing infrastructure, lower car dependency levels, shorter journeys to work and services, and reduced pressure on greenfield sites. The guidance stresses that due attention should also be given to design and environmental quality, and to energy conservation and efficiency.

• Draft NPPG Transport and Planning ( May 1996)

This draft NPPG is based on the English Planning Policy Guidance note 13 (PPG13), issued in its final form about three years ago. PPG13 has had a significant influence on the direction of planning policy in England. The Scottish Office's draft NPPG also recognises that there are important interactions between transport and land use. The location and nature of development can affect the amount and method of travel. Likewise the pattern of new development can be influenced by transport infrastructure, both existing and proposed, and by transport policies. Planning and transport policies should therefore work together to enable development to be served in the most efficient and effective way to provide a basis for sustainable development.

Councils are advised to co-ordinate their policies for land use and transport provision, with the aim of reducing the need to travel, especially by car.

The NPPG encourages Councils to maintain and improve choice so that people can walk, cycle or use public transport rather than drive between their homes and facilities which they visit regularly. Policies aimed at reducing the length of journeys and dependency on the private car must be supported by measures to make alternative modes of transport more appealing. Examples are:

* Making urban areas more attractive and safer for pedestrians.

* Promotion of easily accessible and safe cycle routes.

* Improving public transport systems.

* Provision of Park and Ride facilities.

* Introduction of traffic management measures.

• The Structure Plan

The Lothian Structure Plan 1994 provides the strategic planning framework for the Lothian area, the metropolitan area around Edinburgh, and was approved by the Secretary of State in July of last year. The relationship between land use and transport in Edinburgh and the Lothians is a fundamental issue addressed by the new Structure Plan.

The Plan presents an integrated transport and land use strategy, seeking to contribute towards improving the global environment through conserving energy resources and reducing damaging vehicle emissions. It also supports enhancement to the local environment by countering traffic noise, atmospheric pollution and traffic intrusion in residential areas.Land use policies aim to accommodate new development of all types in locations which will reduce the need for travel and reliance upon the car.

The transport strategy contained in the Structure Plan is based on the reduction of traffic levels in urban areas, maximising overall accessibility and minimising environmental damage by giving greater priority to public transport, walking and cycling. A particular objective of the Structure Plan, relevant to car free housing, is the aim to improve environmental conditions by reducing traffic intrusion in residential areas.

• The Local Plan

There are currently 6 Local Plans covering the area of the City Council. The Local Plans generally include a chapter on transport incorporating policies and proposals outlining the Council's intentions and views in relation to traffic management, improvements to the road network and public transport, safeguarding of cycle routes and car parking provision.

4. The South-Wedge: a strategic development

The "South-East Wedge" is a significant expansion of the City to meet future housing and business location needs. The Lothian Structure Plan identified a need for new land for 19,000 houses up to 2005, and this area can accommodate about 5,000 of this total. The location is however, controversial, as it is largely within the City’s Green Belt. It is however, located within the urban envelope, and for this reason was perceived to be more attractive from a sustainable development point of view than the main alternative locations which were linked with settlements outside the Green Belt and at a greater distance from the main employment locations which are in and around the city itself.

Three key development objectives for this area were established from the outset as follows:

• To maximise integration between new development and existing urban areas and deliver significant economic and social benefits to the adjacent communities. (which currently have above average levels of unemployment and deprivation);
• To plan the new urban areas in a responsible, sustainable way, encouraging the use of public transport and reducing the use of private cars for non-essential trips, and
• To provide an appropriate setting for development within a strong landscape framework which respects the context of the area, protects important views and provides public access to green space.

Proposals for the area include:

• Up to 5000 new homes
• The new Edinburgh Royal Infirmary
• Up to 30 hectares of business land, including a medical business park
• Craigmillar Castle Country Park
• Concentration of Edinburgh University’s medical and veterinary facilities
• Community and local retail facilities

In transport terms, the development will focus on an effective public transport network linking the area to the existing built-up area and the city centre, with higher than normal development densities along the corridor. Several park and ride and rail station sites have been identified. A comprehensive cycle network will also serve the area. It is intended that new development should have a strong urban shape and scale, presenting a strong townscape image which is a pleasure to walk through.

The development will take place around neighbourhood centres, and a new town centre for the area will provide retail and employment opportunities. A mixed use approach to development is being encouraged.

The mechanism that is being adopted to put this in place is through the development of a masterplan, agreed between the two local authorities involved, the City of Edinburgh Council and Midlothian Council, which these authorities will then incorporate into their Local Plans. This will be supplemented by detailed codes for landscape, civic design including density and permeability issues, and environmental and sustainability principles to guide developers and assess projects.

Developers will be expected to submit proposals with a civic design analysis demonstrating an understanding of townscape groupings, building form, skylines, access and mobility issues, and the design of the public realm.

4. Natural Neighbourhoods: a local development

Considering the role and character of local communities within cities goes to the heart of why we have cities and how we shape cities. We have addressed a number of questions which have started a debate on the relationship between local communities and the city as a whole, and how planning and transport policies at the local level can contribute to achieving a sustainable, successful city:

• What kind of city do we want?

One can envisage a range of city forms for the future which each have major implications for the nature of how we live at the local level. These could include:

• Sustainable city - Meeting the city’s needs within boundaries, locating homes, jobs and services as close together as possible. This will require the re-use of brownfield land and the maximising of the efficiency of use of infrastructure, including transport. Residential densities are likely to be relatively high.
• Dispersed city - The North American model. Separate location of land uses with high levels of demand for movement much of it by private car. Emphasis on high quality private space, relatively low residential densities. Substantial greenfield development often in new or very much expanded towns and villages.
• Electronic city - The information technology revolution has the potential for bringing about major change to urban lifestyles. IT could even make the city redundant as the need to travel to undertake work, business, shopping and even education and leisure activities will become increasingly unnecessary - everything can be done in the home or in a local IT centre. This could also have the effect of reinforcing the strength of local communities. It will also strengthen "interest group" communities that will be electronically linked. On the other hand if everything is done from the home will this lead to the further demise of local services?
• What is the role of local communities within the city?
• Local neighbourhoods and town centres are the building blocks of the city. Their inter-relationship is fundamental to the way in which the city functions. I believe that Edinburgh’s strength in this area is one of the contributory factors to the city’s success.
• In Edinburgh, the city centre retains a mixture of active uses - shopping, business, tourism, entertainment, culture, and most importantly, residential. The centre is surrounded by a ring of high density inner suburbs - Gorgie/Dalry, Marchmont, Stockbridge to name just a few, which support an excellent range of local services and strong community identity to make them attractive living environments.
• Further out the suburbs have grown from a series of villages. Some of these still function as the focus of local communities, providing local services and a community identity. These village-based suburbs are interspersed with the large post-war Council housing estates where key characteristics of successful neighbourhoods are missing, significantly contributing to the deprivation experienced by these areas.

• What factors go to make local communities successful?

Key factors include:

• Easy exchange/social activity - the ability to meet neighbours casually
• Existence of local services
• A safe and healthy (unpolluted) environment
• Influence over decisions affecting the local neighbourhood
• Easy access to other areas of the city for activities not available locally

• What can transport and planning measures do to develop or reinforce these factors?

• Reduced traffic levels
• Low traffic speeds through traffic calming/ "homezones"
• Improving the sense of place through urban design
• Providing attractive public space
• Promoting local centres and reducing traffic domination
• Higher residential densities
• Good alternatives to the use of the private car at the city level, with good and easy local access to such citywide networks

4. Sustainable Transport and Land-Use

In order to develop a sustainable pattern of land-use at the strategic and local levels, it is vital that a sustainable transport system is developed in tandem; one which supports and fees the virtuous circles of sustainable development. The City of Edinburgh Council has pioneered sustainable transport policies for the past six years and is regarded as one of a few leading cities in the UK in this respect.

The transport strategy set out in the Structure Plan has been developed into a short-term policy statement and action plan called "Moving FORWARD". Moving FORWARD was launched in October 1994, and was one of the first local authority policy statements to include specific targets for traffic reduction and changes in modal split. (Table 1 below)

Table 1 moving FORWARD strategy targets

A series of complementary actions are needed to give effect to such a traffic reduction strategy. The measures in moving FORWARD include traffic management to increase the reliability of bus services, greater priority for pedestrians in the city centre, a cycle network, Park and Ride, and the development of a guided busway (the City of Edinburgh Rapid Transit) linking the city centre with South Gyle, a major business and retail growth area on the western periphery of the city, and the Airport.

Fundamental to the strategy is the reallocation of roadspace and of road user priorities away from the car to public transport, walking and cycling. The Greenways scheme involves the creation of 30km of additional bus lanes, enforced with ‘London red route’ type waiting and loading restrictions. The bus lanes have green surfacing to emphasise their message. Eastbound general traffic has been removed from Princes Street, allowing the footway to be widened and a cycle lane to be provided along the entire length of Scotland’s premier shopping street. This has received a positive response from the public and, generally, the local press. An advisory 20mph speed limit is also in force on the street. A recent public opinion survey in Edinburgh found 72% of people supporting the introduction of more pedestrian only areas.

The first element of the city centre pedestrian route network is now complete, this again has involved substantial reallocation of roadspace in favour of pedestrians plus measures to assist buses and cyclists. Cycle network development is concentrating in the south central area of the city, with the aim of catering for all cycle movements in this area as a first step in a city wide network. Wide scale consultation on the cycle network attracted an extremely positive response, nearly 90% of over 3500 consultees supported the proposals which focus on street cycle provision.

In the longer term we need to move on from moving Forward if we are to succeed in building a truly sustainable city. A first and important step in this direction was the creation by the new City of Edinburgh Council, formed at the time of the Scottish local government reorganisation in April 1996, of a City Development Department. This department aims to integrate transport strategy with planning and economic development policies - crucial for moving towards sustainability.

A major priority of the new department is the strengthening of local communities and their facilities, especially local shopping centres. If a greater proportion of people’s activities can be centred on the local community, this in itself will make a major contribution to reducing traffic. But this must not just be - indeed it cannot be - a return to mythical "good old days". New ways must be found of blending the positive aspects of the out of town shopping centre - convenience and choice, for example - with the intimacy and friendliness of the local shops. Traffic calming can help restore the sense of community of residential areas - the retreat into the home can be reversed and the streets can again become a public space for social activity, play, or walking to the shops, rather than a corridor for car commuters. Most importantly, decisions on local priorities will involve local people, giving back a sense of ownership to the local community.

A car-free residential area is a housing area in which residents undertake not to own cars. This allows higher environmental quality in these areas, with cars completely excluded. The concept of the CFRA seeks to "minimise unsustainability" in relation to housing provision and transport matters. From the above it can be seen to be compatible with national policy contained in the Environment White Paper, the UK Sustainable Development Strategy, NPPG3 Land for Housing and the Draft NPPG Transport and Planning, and the Council's development plan framework and transportation policies. In January 1996 the City of Edinburgh Council undertook a study on the feasibility, content and possible locations of CFRAs within the City of Edinburgh.

CFRAs are based on the principle that in return for the improvements in their quality of life, each resident of the estate would agree not to own a car. Residents living in a car free environment would gain the following benefits:

A CFRA must have excellent public transport links and nearby shopping facilities and schools. High quality, safe, pedestrian and cycle routes should link the CFRA with these facilities. In order to have access to a car for journeys where there is no realistic alternative, residents could form a car ownership co-operative (City Car Club) or negotiate preferential rates with local car hire companies.

Based on experience in other European countries, Edinburgh seems particularly well suited to accommodate CFRAs in terms of:

The need for clear criteria in identifying locations was considered fundamental to the success of such a development. It is important that lessons learned in Europe are applied effectively to development sites in Edinburgh. The following criteria used to assess sites in Edinburgh are therefore derived from similar principles :-

It was considered that the inner areas of the City were more likely to meet these criteria. Five inner city wards were assessed in relation to each of the above criteria and given a suitability score ranging from Very High to Very Low.

Consideration has also been given to any planning restrictions or other mechanisms that might be needed to enforce the "car-free" nature of such a development. The parking of cars within a development may be restricted by a condition in a feu disposition, planning condition or agreement under Section 75 of the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997. It can be reinforced by traffic regulation orders restricting parking. However restricting residents rights to own a car and keep it outwith the development is more controversial in legal terms and enforcement would be difficult. Original proposals to include such a restriction within a S75 agreement have therefore now been dropped. It is felt that the best form of enforcement at the end of the day will be through "peer-group" pressure, for example through a Residents' Committee. This difficulty does not arise where the development is within a controlled parking zone. In this case, the local authority will not issue parking permits to residents of the car free development.

The benefits of CFRAs are obviously attractive, although there remain some areas of concern:

The limited evidence available, especially from Europe, suggests that in spite of these concerns, the development of some pilot or demonstration car-free housing areas is justifiable. Using the criteria referred to earlier a number of sites have therefore been identified as having potential as CFRAs and two schemes are live: Lauriston Place and Gorgie Goods Yard.

• Lauriston Place, Tollcross

The site lies within a relatively densely populated area with a good mix of private rented and owner occupied housing. It is well served in terms of local services, is located close to the city centre and has excellent access to the public transport network. Parking controls operate in the immediate vicinity. As a result the redevelopment of this site provided the opportunity for the introduction of a car free housing scheme.

On 27 November 1996 planning permission was granted for the development of 65 flats with a ground floor cafe and office space at 128-150 Lauriston Place, subject to a S75 agreement. The applicant was Miller Partnerships. The 65 flats are accommodated in 3 individual buildings each 5 storeys in height. In normal circumstances the applicant would be required to provide one car parking space per dwelling. In this instance only 5 places are proposed. Two generous areas of open space are incorporated within the scheme.

The principle behind car free housing is that any land that would normally be required for car parking and access roads should be utilised for open space or other community purpose. In this instance the Council recognised that in quantitative terms the open space provided did not equate to 65 parking spaces. However this concern has been overcome by the quality of the proposed development in urban design terms and the intention to meet the open space objective within the wider Tollcross site.

In order to ensure that the site is developed and operates as a car free housing area a number of conditions are attached to the planning consent. These include the provision of cycle racks and bus stop and shelter facilities and a requirement for a S75 agreement to ensure that the car parking spaces provided are restricted to the needs of essential users. Furthermore the developer will be required to oblige each owner or tenant to undertake never to park, or cause or permit the parking of a vehicle within the development. The Council does not issue Residents Parking Permits to occupiers of the development.

• Gorgie Goods Yard

This site covers 1.4 hectares, is situated on Slateford Road on the west side of Edinburgh about 3 km from Princes Street, and was formerly a railway goods yard. It is identified in the Local Plan for industrial use, but in recent years has been the subject of interest from housing developers. It is located in a mixed use area with easy access to a main bus route into the city centre which forms one of the city’s "Greenways" bus priority routes. The site meets many of the parameters for a successful car free housing development. However it is not within the controlled parking zone.

On 13th December 1995 the Council agreed to grant outline planning permission for the erection of 120 flats based on the principles of "car free development", subject to a Section 75 agreement. The developer, Canmore Housing Association, has extended the "car-free" concept to a much wider definition of "sustainable housing", including low energy, recycling, low maintenance characteristics and an "ecological" approach to the open space. The housing is seen by Canmore and Scottish Homes, the national housing agency, as a model for housing for the new millennium. Canmore, together with the RIAS have held a design competition for the development. The first stage of this competition attracted over 40 submissions from the UK and the Netherlands. Six designs were shortlisted. The second stage to select a winning entry was completed in April 1997, and the winning design was the basis for the detailed planning application. The design is for 2 to 4 storey buildings reflecting the traditional tenement style of building that is characteristic of Edinburgh’s inner suburbs. Funding has been agreed by Scottish Homes, with an approximate cost of £8.5m. Construction started in October 1998, and the development will be occupied in summer 2000.

The proposal seeks to meet the needs of disabled residents and will include 4 ground floor flats with parking spaces specifically for wheel chair users. The development will only include a further 8 parking spaces to be used by essential visitors and a possible City Car Club. Secure cycle parking will be provided and the main common area will contain information on public transport and cycle access routes. One of the problems to be overcome with regard to this car free scheme relates to the site's location well outwith the controlled parking zone. At present, unrestricted parking is available in nearby streets. Parking controls would have to be introduced to avoid displacement parking by residents of this development. This is possible, if needed, because the city has Special Parking Area status and employs a private company to manage and operate its parking enforcement. This is self-financing.

However the Council have sought to address this issue and other requirements of car free housing through the drafting of a detailed Section 75 agreement. The Heads of Agreement include:-

In addition, the developer has undertaken to require tenants to agree to management rules voluntarily in addition to the tenancy agreement. The management rules as presented by the Housing Association state that residents should not park any vehicle on nearby streets, and should discourage visitors from doing likewise. However these rules do not form part of any legally binding agreement. A residents association will be encouraged in the development to further reinforce the "car-free" ethos through peer group pressure. Finally, the Housing Association will give priority to people requesting transfer to "conventional" housing because their circumstances have changed so that they require to use a car.

Transport and land-use must work together if we are to maintain the quality of life we currently enjoy in the City of Edinburgh. These must be based on sustainable policies which are applied at both the strategic and local level.

It will not be easy to resist the pressures of increasing car ownership and use and the consequent development spread but if our vision is of a vibrant, healthy city centre and living, local communities then it must be achieved.

The end result will be a city that has a growing economy, a healthy environment and an inclusive society. This will be in our interests and that of our children.