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Iwy Em Hotep
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Ancient Medicine
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The Egyptians were one of the first people to have paracticing physicians.
The oldest known physician is Imhotep. He lived around 2725 b.c. He was also known as a high officer, a pyramid
builder, and an astrologer.
A popular belief is that the Ancient Egyptians new very little about anatomy. This proves to be false, because
in the Ebers papyrus the ancient egyptians say that a depressed skull fracture looked like a puncture in a pottery
jar.
Docters in Ancient Egypt usually went through years of hard training at temple schools. Usually in the arts of
interrogation, inspection, and palpation.
Egyptian doctors new lots about the human body for their time. They studied the structure of the brain, and knew
that the pulse was related to the heart. They could also cure many illnesses and set broken bones.
Like the doctors of today, Ancient Egyptian docotors gave out prescriptions. The prescriptions that they gave
out were usually for medicines. The one to the left is written in greek, and has something to do with lead monoxide. |
Some Common Plants Used in Medicine by the Egyptians were:
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Castor Oil
Castor oil, along with figs and dates, were used as laxatives by the Egyptians.
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Tannic Acid
Tannic acid was valued by the Egyptians, because it helped heal burns. It was usually derived from acacia
nuts. An acacia tree is pictured to the left.
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Coriander
Coriander was considered to have cooling, stimulant, carminative and digestive properties. It was also taken
as a tea for stomach illness.
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Surgical Tools Used by Egyptian Doctors
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Ordered from left to right
- knives
- drill
- saw
- forceps or pincers
- censer
- hooks
- bags tied with string
- beaked vessel
- vase with burning incense
- Horus eyes
- scales
- pot with flowers of Upper and Lower Egypt
- pot on pedestal
- graduated cubit or papyrus
- scroll without side knot (or a case holding reed scalpels)
- shears
- spoons
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Edwin Smith Papyrus
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One of the main sources of Egyptian Medical practices is the Edwin Smith papyrus. It was written around 1700
b.c. but most of the information is based on texts written around 2640 b.c., Imhoteps time. The papyrus appears
to talk mainly about wounds, and how to treat them, and suprisingly little about diseases. |
Here is an excerpt from it. It has to do with curing "Stupid Vision"--
"Take the water (humor) contained in pigs eyes, take true antimony, red lead, natural honey, of each
1 Ro (about 15 cc); pulverize it finely and combine it into one mass which should be injected into the ear of the
patient and he will be cured immediately. Do and thou shalt see. Really excellent! Thou shalt recite as a spell:
I have brought this which was applied to the seat of yonder and replaces the horrible suffering. Twice."
Ebers Papyrus
The Ebert papyrus is much more complete than the Edwin Smith papyrus. It is made up of 110 pages, including
approximately 877 remedies. The papyrus is not based upon healing any one part of the body. It has sections that
cover everything from the head to the toes to the fingers to the eyes. It also include remedies to parasitic stomach
disieases and a small section on the heart.
The Ebers Papyrus comprises 110 pages, and is by far the most lengthy of
the medical papyri. It is dated by a passage on the verso to the 9th year of the reign of Amenhotep I (c. 1534
B.C.E.), a date which is close to the extant copy of the Edwin Smith Papyrus. However, one portion of the papyrus
suggests a much earlier origin. Paragraph 856a states that : "the book of driving wekhedu from all
the limbs of a man was found in writings under the two feet of Anubis in Letopolis and was brought to the majesty
of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Den."(Nunn 1996: 31) The reference to the Lower Egyptian Den
is a historic anachronism which suggesting an origin closer to the First Dynasty (c. 3000 B.C.E.)
Unlike the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Ebers Papyrus consists of a collection
of a myriad of different medical texts in a rather haphazard order, a fact which explains the presence of the above
mentioned excerpt. The structure of the papyrus is organized by paragraph, each of which are arranged into blocks
addressing specific medical ailments.
Paragraphs 1-3 contain magical spells designed to protect from supernatural
intervention on diagnosis and treatment. They are immediately followed by a large section on diseases of the stomach
(khet), with a concentration on intestinal parasites in paragraphs 50-85.(Bryan 1930:50) Skin diseases,
with the remedies prescribed placed in the three categories of irritative, exfoliative, and ulcerative, are featured
in paragraphs 90-95 and 104-118. Diseases of the anus, included in a section of the digestive section, are covered
in paragraphs 132-164.(Ibid. 50) Up to paragraph 187, the papyrus follows a relatively standardized format
of listing prescriptions which are to relieve medical ailments. However, the diseases themselves are often more
difficult to translate. Sometimes they take the form of recognizable symptoms such as an obstruction, but often
may be a specific disease term such as wekhedu or aaa, the meaning of both of which remain quite
obscure.
Paragraphs 188-207 comprise "the book of the stomach," and show
a marked change in style to something which is closer to the Edwin Smith Papyrus.(Ibid.: 32) Only paragraph
188 has a title, though all of the paragraphs include the phrase: "if you examine a man with a…," a characteristic
which denotes its similarity to the Edwin Smith Papyrus. From this point, a declaration of the diagnosis, but no
prognosis. After paragraph 207, the text reverts to its original style, with a short treatise on the heart (Paragraphs
208-241).
Paragraphs 242-247 contains remedies which are reputed to have been made
and used personally by various gods. Only in paragraph 247, contained within the above mentioned section and relating
to Isis' creation of a remedy for an illness in Ra's head, is a specific diagnosis mentioned. (Bryan 1930:45)
The following section continues with diseases of the head, but without reference
to use of remedies by the gods. Paragraph 250 continues a famous passage concerning the treatment of migraines.
The sequence is interrupted in paragraph 251 with the focus placed on a drug rather than an illness. Most likely
an extract from pharmacopoeia, the paragraph begins: "Knowledge of what is made from degem (most likely
a ricinous plant yielding a form of castor oil), as something found in ancient writings and as something useful
to man."(Nunn 1996: 33)
Paragraphs 261-283 are concerned with the regular flow of urine and are followed
by remedies "to cause the heart to receive bread."(Bryan 1930:80). Paragraphs 305-335 contain remedies
for various forms of coughs as well as the genew disease.
The remainder of the text goes on to discuss medical conditions concerning
hair (paragraphs 437-476), traumatic injuries such as burns and flesh wounds (paragraphs 482-529), and diseases
of the extremities such as toes, fingers, and legs. Paragraphs 627-696 are concerned with the relaxation or strengthening
of the metu. The exact meaning of metu is confusing and could be alternatively translated as either
mean hollow vessels or muscles tissue.(Ibid.:52) The papyrus continues by featuring diseases of the tongue
(paragraphs 697-704), dermatological conditions (paragraphs 708-721), dental conditions (paragraphs 739-750), diseases
of the ear, nose, and throat (paragraphs 761-781), and gynecological conditions (paragraphs 783-839)
Kahun Gynecological Papyrus
The Kahun Papyrus was discovered by Flinders Petrie in April of 1889 at the
Fayum site of Lahun. The town itself flourished during the Middle Kingdom, principally under the reign of Amenenhat
II and his immediate successor. The papyrus is dated to this period by a note on the recto which states the date
as being the 29th year of the reign of Amenenhat III (c. 1825 B.C.E.). The text was published in facsimile, with
hieroglyphic transcription and translation into English, by Griffith in 1898, and is now housed in the University
College London.
The gynecological text can be divided into thirty-four paragraphs, of which
the first seventeen have a common format.(Nunn 1996: 34) The first seventeen start with a title and are followed
by a brief description of the symptoms, usually, though not always, having to do with the reproductive organs.
The second section begins on the third page, and comprises eight paragraphs
which, because of both the state of the extant copy and the language, are almost unintelligible. Despite this,
there are several paragraphs that have a sufficiently clear level of language as well as being intact which can
be understood. Paragraph 19 is concerned with the recognition of who will give birth; paragraph 20 is concerned
with the fumigation procedure which causes conception to occur; and paragraphs 20-22 are concerned with contraception.
Among those materials prescribed for contraception are crocodile dung, 45ml of honey, and sour milk.(Ibid:35)
The third section (paragraphs 26-32) is concerned with the testing for pregnancy.
Other methods include the placing of an onion bulb deep in the patients flesh, with the positive outcome being
determined by the odor appearing to the patients nose.
The fourth and final section contains two paragraphs which do not fall into
any of the previous categories. The first prescribes treatment for toothaches during pregnancy. The second describes
what appears to be a fistula between bladder and vagina with incontinence of urine "in an irksome place."(Ibid.
35)
The Investigation of Disease Patterns Through Human
Remains and Artistic Representations
Parasitic Diseases
Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis)
Of the three main species of the platyhelminth worm Schistosoma, the
most important for Egypt are S. mansoni and S. haematobium. There is a complex life
cycle alternating between two hosts, humans and the fresh water snail of the genus Bulinus. The infection
is caught by humans who come into contact with the free swimming worm which the snail releases in the water. The
worm penetrates the intact skin and enters the veins of the human host. The main symptom of the presence of the
parasite is haematuria which results in serious anemia, loss of appetite, urinary infection, and loss of resistance
to other diseases. There may also be interference with liver functions.
One of the finest archaeological examples for the existence of schistosomiasis
in ancient Egypt was the discovery of calcified ova in the unembalmed 21st Dynasty mummy of Nakht. Upon medical
examination, the mummy not only exhibited a preserved tapeworm, but also ova of the Schistosoma haematobium
and displayed changes in the liver resulting from a schistosomal infection.(Millat et al. 1980:79)
Bacterial and Viral Infections
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
Ruffer (1910) reported the presence of tuberculosis of the spine in Nesparehan,
a priest of Amun of the 21st Dynasty. This shows the typical features of Pott's disease with collapse of thoracic
vertebra, producing the angular kyphosis (hump-back). A well known complication of Pott's disease is the tuberculous
suppuration moving downward under the psoas major muscle, towards the right iliac fossa, forming a very large psoas
abscess.(Nunn 1996:64)
Ruffer's report has remained the best authenticated case of spinal tuberculosis
from ancient Egypt. All known possible cases, ranging from the Predynastic to 21st Dynasty were reviewed by Morse,
Brockwell, and Ucko (1964) as well as by Buikstra, Baker, and Cook.(1993) These included Predynastic specimens
collected at Naqada by Petrie and Quibell in 1895 as well as nine Nubian Specimens from the Royal College of Surgeons
of England. Both reviewers were in agreement that there was very little doubt that tuberculosis was the cause of
pathology in most, but not all, cases. In some cases, it was not possible to exclude compression fractures, osteomyelitis,
or bone cysts as causes of death.
The numerous artistic representation of hump-backed individuals are provocative
but not conclusive. The three earliest examples are undoubtedly of Predynastic origin. The first is a ceramic figurine
reported to have been found by Bedu in the Aswan district. It represents an emaciated human with angular kyphosis
of the thoracic spine crouching in a clay vessel.(Schrumph-Pierron 1933) The second possible Predynastic representation
with spinal deformity indicative of tuberculosis is a small standing ivory likeness of a human with arms down at
the sides of the body bent at the elbows. The head is modeled with facial features carefully indicated. The figure
is shown with a protrusion of the back and on the chest.(Morse 1967: 261) The last Predynastic example is a wooden
statue contained within the Brussels Museum. Described as a bearded male with intricate facial features, the figure
has a large rounded hunch-back and an angular projection of the sternum.(Jonckheere 1948: 25)
As well, there are several historic Egyptian representations which indicate
the possibility of tuberculosis deformity. One of the most suggestive, located in and Old Kingdom 4th Dynasty tomb,
is of a bas relief serving girl who exhibits localized angular kyphosis. A second provocative example has its origin
in the Middle Kingdom. A tomb painting at Beni Hasan, the representation shows a gardener with a localized angular
deformity of the cervical-thoracic spine.(Morse 1967: 263)
Poliomyelitis
A viral infection of the anterior horn cells of the spinal chord, the presence
of poliomyelitis can only be detected in those who survive its acute stage. Mitchell (Sandison 1980:32) noted the
shortening of the left leg, which he interpreted as poliomyelitis, in the an early Egyptian mummy from Deshasheh.
The club foot of the Pharaoh Siptah as well as deformities in the 12th Dynasty mummy of Khnumu-Nekht are probably
the most attributable cases of poliomyelitis.
An 18th or 19th Dynasty funerary staele shows the doorkeeper Roma with a
grossly wasted and shortened leg accompanied by an equinus deformity of the foot. The exact nature of this deformity,
however, is debated in the medical community. Some favor the view that this is a case of poliomyelitis contracted
in childhood before the completion of skeletal growth. The equinus deformity, then, would be a compensation allowing
Roma to walk on the shortened leg. Alternatively, the deformity could be the result of a specific variety of club
foot with a secondary wasting and shortening of the leg.(Nunn 1996: 77)
Deformities
Dwarfism
Dasen (1993) lists 207 known representations of dwarfism. Of the types described,
the majority are achondroplastic, a form resulting in a head and trunk of normal size with shortened limbs. The
statue of Seneb is perhaps the most classic example. A tomb statue of the dwarf Seneb and his family, all of normal
size, goes a long way to indicate that dwarfs were accepted members in Egyptian society. Other examples called
attention to by Ruffer (1911) include the 5th Dynasty statuette of Chnoum-hotep from Saqqara, a Predynastic drawing
of the "dwarf Zer" from Abydos, and a 5th Dynasty drawing of a dwarf from the tomb of Deshasheh.
Skeletal evidence, while not supporting the social status of dwarfs in Egyptian
society, does corroborate the presence of the deformity. Jones (Brothwell 1967:432) described a fragmentary Predynastic
skeleton from the cemetery at Badari with a normal shaped cranium both in size in shape. In contrast to this, however,
the radii and ulna are short and robust, a characteristic of achondroplasia. A second case outlined by Jones (Ibid.:432)
consisted of a Predynastic femur and tibia, both with typical short shafts and relatively large articular ends.
Cited References
Breasted, J.H.
The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (University of Chicago Press: University of
Chicago, 1930)
Brothwell, D.
"Major Congenital Anomalies of the Skeleton," in Diseases in Antiquity: A Survey
of Disease, Injuries, and Surgery in Early Populations (eds.) A.T. Sandison and D. Brothwell (Charles C. Thomas:
Springfield, 1967)
Bryan, P.W.
The Papyrus Ebers (Geoffrey Bles: London, 1930)
Buikstra, J.E.; Baker, B.J.; Cook, D.C.
"What Disease Plagues the Ancient Egyptians? A Century of Controversy Considered,"
In Biological Anthropology and the Study of Ancient Egypt (eds.) W,V. Davies and R. Walter (British Museum
Press: London, 1993)
Dasen, V.
Dwarfs in Ancient Egypt and Greece (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1993)
Dawson, W.R. and E.P. Uphill
Who Was Who in Egyptology (Egyptian Exploration Society: London, 1993)
Jonckheere, F.
"Le Bossu des Mussées Royaux D'Art et D'Histoire de Bruxelles," Chronique
D'Égypt (45) 25, 1958.
Millet, N.; Hart, G.; Reyman, T.; Zimerman, A.; Lewein, P.
"ROM I: Mummification for the Common People," in Mummies, Disease, and Ancient
Cultures (eds.) Aiden and Eve Cockburn (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1980)
Morse, D.
"Tuberculosis," in Diseases in Antiquity: A Survey of Diseases, Injuries, and
Surgery in Early Populations (eds.) A.T. Sandison and D. Brothwell (Charles Thomas: Springfield, 1967)
Morse, D.; Brothwell, D.; Ucko, P.J.
"Tuberculosis in Ancient Egypt," in American Review of Respiratory Diseases
(90), 1964)
Nunn, J.F.
Ancient Egyptian Medicine (University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, 1996)
Ruffer, M.A.
"Potts'che Krankheit an Einer Ägyptischer Mumie aus der Zeiy der 21 Dynastie,"
in Zur Historischen Biologie der Krankheiserreger (3), 1910
"On Dwarfs and Other Deformed Persons," Bulletin de Societé D'Archéologie
D'Alexandrie (13)1, 1911
Sandison, A.T.
"Diseases in Ancient Egypt," in Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures (eds.)
Aiden and Eve Cockburn (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1980)
Schrumph-Pierron, B.
"La Mal de Pott en Égypt 4000 Ans Avant Notre Ére," Aesculpe (23)1933
There will be several sections... Home Herbal Remedies ... For The
Apprentice Physician A How To Section...
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