1. To form the spoken plural merely add -A on the end of the noun--unless a number showing plurality is included with it, in which case the noun does not change, whether it is animate or inanimate. When words showing plurality (other than numbers) are used, then the noun may be pluralized.

2. The plural marker -A is always accented.

3. When adding -A to words ending in vowel sounds the following phonological rules are observed:

(a) The final -a of words ending in -a is merely lengthened to -A; so, khAna---KhAnA (houses).

(b) Words ending in final -I or -i (of diphthongs) change the -I or -i to -y- before adding -A; so, chaokI--chaokyA (chairs) or korsI--korsyA (chairs) or sandalI--SandalyA (chairs).

(c) Words ending in -o (diphthongs) treat -o as -w- before adding -A.

(d) Words ending in any other vowel sound (e.g., -E, -A, -O, -U) merely add -A; so, kachAlU--kachAlUA (potatoes).

4. Although the two examples shown with yak cause /k/ to change to /g/ (because of the following voiced sounds), with the other three examples (beginning with /kh/, /ch/ and /k/, all voiceless there is no change. So, yak khAna (one house), yak chaokI (one chair) and yak kachAlu (one potato).

5. In this course stress is shown by underlining the syllables (of a single word or sentence) which are to be accented.

1. Gender is not indicated by any of these forms. It must be inferred from the context. U, for example, can be "he," "she" or "it".

2. The second person singular form tU is used for children and for familiar friends whom one would address by their first name. It must be distinguished from tO (usually repeated) which is a sound used for calling a dog. (See 21-A.)

3. The second person plural form shumA is used for those whom one would address more formally or unfamiliarly by their surnames.

4. If the second person plural form shumA is used for more than one person then those persons could be either familiar or unfamiliar. If it is used for one person only then that person would not be well known to the speaker or would be addressed more formally. It is not so much (as in some languages) a question of "politeness" as it is of familiarity / unfamiliarity or formality / informality. shumA is becoming more and more preferable to use instead of tU. In other words, shumA would nearly always be acceptable while tU in some cases--especially if mispronounced tO (as in # 2, above)--might be offensive.

5. The third person singular form U, besides its usual sense, is also used as a plural for animals or inanimate things (= they). (Cf. � 3-G-1.)

6. The third person plural form unA is normally used only when referring to persons (not animals or things). As a matter of respect (or formality) -- e.g., when talking about another’s father -- unA may also be used to refer to a singular subject so long as that subject is not present. In such instances the verb is pluralized to agree with unA.

7. The third person form enA is used when one is talking formally or respectfully about a person in his presence to anther person. This usage requires the third person plural form of the verb with enA.

1. The infinitive (or "to") form of the verb in Dari always ends in -an.

2. All infinitives are accented on the final (or -an) syllable.

3. The accent of the verb bUdan falls on the first syllable in this tense.

4. The verb bUdan is the most frequently used and also the most irregular verb in Dari. It is important, however, because of the personal endings which are regular except for the third person singular.

1. Gender is not shown by any of these forms. It must be inferred from the context. Consequently, the -a form, for example, can imply that "he," "she" or "it" is the subject.

2. Except for the third person singular of certain tenses (cf. � 3-E, above) the personal endings for all verbs in Dari are as given here.

3. Since these endings indicating the subject are always suffixed to verbs, the subject pronouns -- depending on t he context -- are frequently omitted.

1. The verb agrees with the subject in person and number except when the subject is non-human or inanimate, in which case the subject pronoun and the verb remain singular (cf. the examples above with kelyA, gulA and pardA).

2. When a number is mentioned plural animate subjects take a singular verb since the subject is not pluralized (cf. � 3-C-1).

3. Note that in the sentences with "brothers" and "nurses" the words brAdar and amshIra in spoken Dari usually remain singular, even though in English they have to be translated as plurals. In these cases they function attributively, that is, as if one were to say, "We belong to the group known as (or, in the category of) ‘brothers’, ‘nurse’."

4. Contraction frequently -- but not always -- occurs in Dari when a word ending in a vowel is immediately followed by a verb beginning with a vowel (as in the present tense of bUdan). In other words, one of the vowels is assimilated. So, darwAza + as darwAzas, amshIra = astan = amshIrastan, kelyA + as = kelyAs, gulA + as = gulAs, pardA + as = pardAs.

5. When a word like tefel (baby) is followed by a vowel it drops the second short vowel. So, tefel + as = tefl as; tefel --teflA (babies).

6. Since the subject is included in the personal ending of the Dari verb anyway, subject pronouns are often omitted (as in some of the examples following). Foreigners have a tendency to use subject pronouns too much while Afghans, if the context is clear, normally omit them.

7. As in English, the pitch of the voice drops at the end f a simple statement. Thus,

It is a light (or, lamp).

8. The usual Dari word order puts the verb at the end of the sentence.

9. The word kelkIn (window) ordinarily refers to one frame (of any size) serving as an opening in a wall, no matter how many smaller divisions it contains. Thus, a window with the shape

will be considered as yak kelkIn, not du kelkIn.

1. Apart from the "yes" (or "no") answer, the form and word order of the simple question is the same as that of the simple statement. The difference is conveyed only by the pitch of the voice, rising for the question and falling for the answer.

2. If the answer is intended to be somewhat emphatic, as, for example, in clarifying a misunderstanding or uncertainty, the voice may be stressed on the verb. This does in spoken language what italics would accomplish in written English. So, "Yes, he is."

3. Words given in parentheses in the above examples--and throughout the sentences of the courses--may be omitted in actual speech. Here the subject is included in the personal endings of the verbs and references are specific enough without the subject pronouns.

4. bale (also, balE), "yes," with the voice rising and the accent falling on the second syllable, is also the usual response by Afghans when answering the telephone. It is thus equivalent to "Hello" or

1. The negative na (not), because of its final vowel coming just before the initial vowel of the present tense forms of bUdan (to be), is assimilated to that vowel, becoming nE____; except in the case of the second person singular the second vowel commonly influences the first one and changes it from -E- to -I-.

2. The accent is put on the negative marker na when it is combined with the present tense forms of bUdan (to be).

3. The negative answer nE (no) comes at the beginning of replies. na-khair is a more polite way of saying "No," something like, "No, sir, I regret to say ..."