Science

Artificial Gravity - often seen in science-fiction but never mentioned into space science circles, it would seem to solve one of the major problems for life in space, be it human ( or any earth flora or fauna ), Weightlessness.
Newtonian Physics is used...

      (m₁ x m₂)
F =  G -         -
          d²
F=ma  F=mg,  where g= -9.2ms^-2

where G is the gravitational constant of the universe,
      g is the acceleration due gravity on earth, the moon has 1/6 of a g
      m is the mass of the object
      d is the distance between the two objects m₁ and m₂

There are in a few methods seen to get

Replicate the mass of the planet earth... hmmm hard

Rotate a cylinder or circular shape, at the right speed for its radius, so that the inner wall of the cylinder has a rotational acceleration of 9.8ms^-2.

Generate a field of attraction usually magnetics is suggested but is impractical, the oft quoted gav-net in star trek supposedly can be switched on and off at the flick of a switch.

Animated Gif of the Ozone layer over the world (1997)

Nasa's Mars schedule as described National Geographic August 1998
The launches will occur every 26 months, when Mars is in optimum position in relative to earth

Late 1998-early 1999: Mars Climate Orbiter will carry camera and equipment to study the atmosphere and the surface. Mars Polar Lander will settle near Mars's southern ice cap-thought to be frozen water and carbon dioxide-and take samples with a robotic arm. Two small probes will be dropped into the ground to search for water. No rover will be included.

March 1999: Mars Global Surveyor will attain a circular orbit over Mars's poles. Capable of imaging objects the size of a large desk, it will map the Martian surface. Other instruments will continue to study Mars's localised magnetic fields. A laser altimeter will measure, to an accuracy within a meter, seasonal changes in the height of the ice caps.

2001: The new millennium begins with the launch of a new orbiter and a lander, ideally with a rover payload. Considerably hardier than the fragile Sojourner, the 2001 rover will collect rocks and soil samples and cache them. Scientists will select the landing site based on high-definition data collected by Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Climate Orbiter.

2003: As in the 2001 mission, this lander will be sent to an area with rocks most likely to bear evidence of past life on Mars. Again, the rover will collect and cache rocks and soil samples.

2005: The first round-trip mission to collect rocks. Using technology not yet developed. a lander will head for the most promising of the previous landing sites. Its rover will collect the rocks and soil samples cached by an old rovers. Samples will be brought back to earth in 2008 for detailed study.

Mars Pathfinder mission

Lunar Prospector

The Periodic Table of all known elements
(The raw materials of everything)
Select an element from the periodic table, descriptions will in infomation bar at the bottom of your brower and if click on on element symbol
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Valancy +1 +2 +3 -5 +4 -4 +5 -3 -2 -1 0

1 1
H 2
He

2 3
Li 4
Be 5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne

3 11
Na 12
Mg 13
Al 14
Si 15
P 16
S 17
Cl 18
Ar

4 19
K 20
Ca 21
Sc 22
Ti 23
V 24
Cr 25
Mn 26
Fe 27
Co 28
Ni 29
Cu 30
Zn 31
Ga 32
Ge 33
As 34
Se 35
Br 36
Kr

5 37
Rb 38
Sr 39
Y 40
Zr 41
Nb 42
Mo 43
Tc 44
Ru 45
Rh 46
Pd 47
Ag 48
Cd 49
In 50
Sn 51
Sb 52
Te 53
I 54
Xe

6 55
Cs 56
Ba * 71
Lu 72
Hf 73
Ta 74
W 75
Re 76
Os 77
Ir 78
Pt 79
Au 80
Hg 81
Tl 82
Pb 83
Bi 84
Po 85
At 86
Rn

7 87
Fr 88
Ra ** 103
Lr 104
Rf 105
Db 106
Sg 107
Bh 108
Hs 109
Mt 110
Ds 111
Uuu 112
Uub 113
Uut 114
Uuq 115
Uup 116
Uuh 117
Uus 118
Uuo

*Lanthanoids * 57
La 58
Ce 59
Pr 60
Nd 61
Pm 62
Sm 63
Eu 64
Gd 65
Tb 66
Dy 67
Ho 68
Er 69
Tm 70
Yb

**Actinoids ** 89
Ac 90
Th 91
Pa 92
U 93
Np 94
Pu 95
Am 96
Cm 97
Bk 98
Cf 99
Es 100
Fm 101
Md 102
No

Carbon

Carbon
6
C
12.0107(8)

Carbon	6 C 12.0107(8)

The essentials

Name: carbon
Symbol: C
Atomic number: 6
Atomic weight: 12.0107 (8) g r
CAS Registry ID: 7440-44-0

Group number: 14
Group name: (none)
Period number: 2
Block: p-block

Here is a brief description of carbon.

Standard state: solid at 298 K
Colour: graphite is black, diamond is colourless
Classification: Non-metallic
Availability: carbon is available in several forms including amorphous, powder, graphite rods, diamond, "bucky tubes", foil, sheet, and wire.
Carbon is a Group 14 element. Carbon is distributed very widely in nature. It is found in abundance in the sun, stars, comets, and atmospheres of most planets. The atmosphere of Mars contains 96 % CO₂.

Carbon is found free in nature in three allotropic forms: amorphous, graphite, and diamond. Graphite is one of the softest known materials while diamond is one of the hardest. Carbon, as microscopic diamonds, is found in some meteorites. Natural diamonds are found in ancient volcanic "pipes" such as found in South Africa. Diamonds are also recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope.
More recently, another form of carbon, buckminsterfullerene, C₆₀, has been discovered. This new form of carbon is the subject of great interest in research laboratories today.
Carbon is present as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and dissolved in all natural waters. It is a component of rocks as carbonates of calcium (limestone), magnesium, and iron. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are chiefly hydrocarbons. Carbon is unique among the elements in the vast number of variety of compounds it can form. Organic chemistry, a 1/112th subset of inorganic chemistry, is the study of carbon and its compounds. While silicon might take the place of carbon in forming a host of related compounds, it is not possible currently to form stable compounds with very long chains of silicon atoms.

In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted the isotope ¹²C as the basis for atomic weights. Carbon-14, ¹⁴C, an isotope with a half-life of 5730 years, is used to date such materials as wood, archeological specimens, etc. Carbon-13, ¹³C, is particularly useful for isotopic labelling studies since it is not radioactive, but is a spin I = ¹/₂ nucleus and therefore a good NMR nucleus.

Strange Matter cartoon included by kind permission of Nick Kim at the University of Waikato, New Zealand.

Isolation
Here is a brief summary of the isolation of carbon.
Carbon is available in nature as graphite and (to a much lesser extent!) as diamond. Artificial graphite is made by the reaction of coke with silica (SiO₂).

SiO₂ + 3C (2500°C) ==> "SiC" ==> Si (g) + C(graphite)

Artificial diamonds are made by the application of heat and pressure (> 125 kBar) in the presence of a catalyst such as iron, chromium or platinum. It seems that the metal melts on the carbon surface, the graphite dissolves in the metal film, and the less soluble diamond precipitates out. The introduction of nitrogen as an impurity gives yellowish diamonds while boron impurities give bluish colours.

A new form of carbon, buckminsterfullerene with formula C₆₀ is formed in the treatment of graphite by lasers and is now commercially available in small quantities.

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The Periodic Table of all known elements

Carbon

The essentials

Isolation