"I live so long as I create
and I am able to absorb the culture."
To some, this creed
may seem an artist’s fancy, but it is what kept the prisoners of the ghetto
Terezin alive.
Like many ghettos created by Nazis to imprison Jews, Terezin housed
a number of artists with extraordinary minds and abilities. These individuals
and many other innocent men, women, and children became unknowing victims
of Hitler’s genocidal Final Solution. Even though the majority of the ghetto’s
prisoners were deported and put to death at concentration camps, some made
the most of what time they had left. Both young and old would endeavor
to artistically express themselves by any means available, while others
became zealous students under the guidance of intellectual fellow inmates.
In the five years of the ghetto’s existence, the fates of over 141,000 people would merge within the walls of Terezin. To understand this situation better, we must first ask what circumstances would bring about inception of this monument to inhumanity. How were some of the world’s most gifted artists and thinkers able to create and disseminate information under such atrocious living conditions? And what has become of Terezin today?
In 1923, Adolf Hitler made his anti-Semitic beliefs clear in his manifesto Mein Kampf (My Struggle). In it he stated, "I believe that I am acting in the spirit of Almighty God; in defending myself from the Jews, I am doing God’s work." This concise hatred drew many to its service and ultimately led to the conception and inception of Hitler’s Final Solution.
The Final Solution would foster itself after a sequence of organized events spanning nearly a decade. Hitler’s manipulation of German citizens slowly and undetectably transformed the public’s scorn and detestation of Jews to a methodical and efficient genocide.
On January 30, 1933, President Hindenburg named Hitler Chancellor of Germany making him the most powerful man in Germany. Hindenburg relied upon Hitler to lead Germany out of its dire political and economic crisis. At the time of his appointment, Hitler led the right-wing political party known as the National Socialist German Workers Party, a.k.a. Nazi Party. By 1933, the Nazi party was Germany’s strongest political party. Once appointed Chancellor, Hitler explicitly declared war against two forces: Communism and Judaism.
Hitler moved quickly to end all German democracy only two months into his appointment as Chancellor. He convinced cabinet members to pass emergency amendments to the German Constitution permitting suspension of individual freedoms of press, speech, and assembly. He formed special security forces: Special State Police (the Gestapo), the Storm Troopers (S.A.), and the Security Police (S.S.). These forces were trained to discriminately arrest and murder leaders of opposing political parties (Communists, Socialists, and Liberals).
Within the year Hitler won
complete power by passing the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933, giving him
dictatorial powers over all of Germany. A path of power, death, and destruction
was now cleared for Hitler and his henchmen.
That same year Hitler would begin promoting his racial ideology on
a mass level. Hitler believed Jews, Roma (Gypsies), homosexuals,
the mentally ill and handicapped people were "inferior" and considered
them a serious biological threat to the purity of the German (Aryan) race.
Under Hitler’s influence, the German government passed laws forcing Jews
to resign from civil service jobs, university positions, and other positions
of public service. In April 1933 an official boycott of all Jewish businesses
ensued. By 1935 the Nuremburg Laws were passed, stripping German Jews of
their citizenship.
Between 1937 and 1939, Jews were slowly becoming more and more segregated from the rest of German society. Jews could no longer attend public schools, go to theaters, cinemas, or vacation resorts; nor could they reside or even visit certain sections of German cities. During this same time, Jews were forced from Germany’s economic life through seizure of Jewish-owned businesses and property.
In November 1938 Hitler’s Gestapo followed through with an organized riot known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass". The German government took a sharper turn toward the mistreatment of its Jewish citizens by physically destroying synagogues and Jewish-owned stores, arresting and deporting Jewish men, destroying homes of Jewish residents, and even murdering Jews. The result of Kristallnacht was a systematic capture and deportation of 30,000 German and Austrian Jews to Dachau and other concentration camps. Several hundred women were sent to local jails. The arrests and deportations of Kristallnacht also included several thousand German and Austrian Gypsies.
When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, World War II officially began. Within one month, German soldiers defeated the Polish army and commenced a horrendous massacre of the Polish people. Three million Polish Jews were segregated and forced into approximately 400 newly established ghettos. A large number of Jews were also deported from other cities and countries throughout Europe and sent to the established ghettos in Poland and other German-occupied territories.
The Nazis created ghettos in hundreds of pre-existing cities throughout Europe. A number of city blocks would be fenced off to confine the maximum number of people in the existing space. The ghettos served as a secure holding place while prisoners awaited deportation to concentration camps. One of these ghettos was Terezin.
Terezin is a small city located in the hills Czechoslovakia, just outside Prague. Founded at the end of the 18th century, Terezin was developed to serve as an impenetrable fortress during the wars waged by the Habsburg monarchy against Prussia between 1740 and 1779. This defensive structure positioned between the rivers Ohre and Elbe would consist of three parts: a main fortress known as the "Great Fortress", a "Little Fortress", and a fortification between the two. Terezin was commissioned by Joseph II and named after his mother, Theresa. The construction lasted a total of 11 years and was built to serve a maximum population of 8,000.
In 1939, nearly 200 years later, Nazi troops began occupying Czechoslovakia, making Bohemia and Moravia German Protectorates. Slowly the Greater Reich gained possession of Czechoslovakia. The Nazis discovered Terezin in October 1941, and found it to be an adequate site to detain Czech prisoners of war. Heinrich Himmler conceived the idea to transform Terezin into a ghetto. His plan was to make Terezin a "model ghetto" and in his own words, Terezin would be "a town inhabited by Jews and governed by them and in which every manner of work is to be done". Himmler believed Terezin would solve all the "awkward" problems surrounding the Final Solution in that region. Conveniently located near Prague, Terezin had its own train station making transportation to and from the ghetto virtually effortless. With its thick walls, high mounds, and deep motes, Terezin was sure to prevent escape, proving itself more than adequate for the Nazis and indeed, a model prison camp.
The Gestapo enticed Jews to emigrate to Terezin by advertising the ghetto as a gift "the Fuhrer has given to the Jews". Admission rights were sold to privileged Jews of Germany: civil servants, members of the Jewish Councils, half-Jews, Jews married to Aryans, veterans of the first World War. Many Jews paid tens of thousands of marks and signed a contract in order to live in Terezin. From the first day of their "gifted" life in Terezin, people were stripped of their rights and possessions. There was no doubt they’d "been had" by the German government.
Once Terezin became established as a ghetto, all Gentiles within its walls were evacuated and Terezin became entirely Jewish. The Germans renamed the ghetto Theresienstadt. Theresienstadt was overseen by SS troops, guarded by Czech gendarmes, and governed internally by a Jewish Council of Elders.
The Council of Elders ran all the internal affairs of the ghetto. Each elder was appointed by the German commandant and became responsible for overseeing the distribution of food, sanitation, cultural activities, care of the old and young, and keeping a list of names for deportation. The Council of Elders upheld order amidst chaos. Of course, this order was overseen by several armed Nazi soldiers who had complete control over the entire city, but the Elders made a profound effort to sustain a certain dignity within the ghetto. Any cultural activity was at first forbidden within the walls of the ghetto. However, in time, Elders were able to convince the Gestapo to permit some forms of art on the basis that it would pacify the bereaved population. All art depicting the harsh treatment of the prisoners or art with implicit or explicit anti-fascist themes was forbidden and the rule strictly enforced.
The prisoners were divided into three groups, men ages 14 and up, women ages 14 and up, and children 14 and under. Each group had its own set of cells and facilities. Up until 1942, only men were imprisoned at Terezin. Nazis brought the first female prisoners to Terezin that summer. It became clear that Hitler was sharpening his focus to eliminate all Jews from existence. At one point, the population of Terezin exploded holding nearly 60,000 prisoners.
The living conditions of
the prisoners worsened as the years went on: food rations became smaller
and smaller; cells became extremely overcrowded; personal hygiene ceased
to exist; prisoners were subjected to the incessant bother of insects and
rodents; and the amount of hard labor increased to impossible standards.
Despite the daily horrors of hard labor, deportation, and death, the ghetto
began to thrive with culture. There were lectures, concerts, and theatrical
performances. Theresienstadt was overpopulated by scholars, artists, architects,
composers, diplomats, and actors and became a small mecca of the intellect.
The Nazis were faced with a grave problem of what to do with the more famous
prisoners-those who were well-known authors and artists, professors, and
statesmen. These men and women were spared deportation and death for greater
lengths of time than the average prisoner. Few had the luxury of overstaying
their welcome at Terezin, making any lasting resistance among the population
impossible.
Prisoners
brought their possessions with them to Terezin. The result was nearly an
orchestra of instruments, a modest supply of paints, brushes, and paper,
as well as thousands of books-so many they grew into a library with an
inventory of nearly 100,000 volumes. These instruments, supplies, and books
contributed to the intellectual input and creative output of the population,
alleviating the despair and impending doom of their fate. Art for many
was not just a tool of expression, it became a source of survival.
Educators at Terezin were greatly concerned with the education of the ghetto’s youth. The Nazis thought it only necessary to guide the children to acquire manual skills in accordance with Nazi ideology, so their education in the ghetto took place secretly. Those imprisoned youngsters learned the teachings of Marx and Lenin from two leading anti-fascist resistance fighters: Vaclav Sinkule and Jan Cerny. Former Foreign Minister Kamil Kofta provided instruction on history. Professor Vladmir Helfert gave music lessons.
In December, 1942, Friedl Dicker-Brandeis became a resident of Theresienstadt. Born in Vienna and schooled in Bauhaus, Dicker-Brandeis was a Communist and activist in the anti-fascist resistance. Upon her arrival in the ghetto, she took a great interest in teaching the children of Theresienstadt how to paint and draw and on a deeper level, how to artistically perceive things. She would tell stories to the children then ask them to draw what she described. The children drew butterflies, flowers, families, cities, animals, and religious celebrations. The children of Theresienstadt created nearly 5,000 pictures and collages. For more than a decade after the ghetto’s liberation, the drawings were kept by Willy Goag, a survivor of Terezin. Thanks to Goag, the world has a record of the persecuted youth of Terezin who would’ve otherwise been lost. Deported October 6, 1944, Friedl Dicker-Brandeis was later killed in Birkenau.
Youngsters at Terezin sought
solace through creativity-an escape from the oppression of their daily
lives. Ivan Javor, a young Communist, wrote dozens of poems depicting the
detestable living conditions of Terezin. His works leave us a trace of
truth which the Nazis would have otherwise erased. Several other Jews wrote
both poetry and prose while imprisoned, and many of these efforts have
been preserved. For some, writing served as a medium to express frustration,
helplessness, hope, and faith.
The children may have been naive to the doom of their situation, but
they weren’t ignorant. A poem written by 11 year-old Franta Bass, demonstrates
the girl’s-and her people’s-defiance in the face of oppression.
I Am a Jew
by Franta Blass
I am a Jew and will be a Jew forever.
Even if I die from hunger,
never will I submit.
I will always fight for my people,
on my honor.
I will never be ashamed of them,
I give my word.
I am proud of my people,
how dignified they are.
Even though I am suppressed,
I will always come back to life.
Although strictly forbidden to do so, the prisoners did demonstrate anti-fascist themes in their art. A group of young boys under the supervision of educator and Communist Valter Eisinger set up their own form of self-government resembling Communist ideology. The boys secretly created and regularly published a magazine entitled Vedem (We Lead). This magazine was published for over two years and reflected the cultural activities of the boys as well as their strong Communist ideology.
The adults also expressed themselves in many different media. Several well-known authors, composers, actors, and artists continued their creative expression while at Terezin. Karel Polacek, Karel Fleischmann, Pavel Freidmann, and Ilse Weber were authors who wrote extensively during their time in the Ghetto. Pavel Haas, Hans Krasa, Gideon Klein, and Viktor Ullmann, were composers who performed in a makeshift orchestra.
In 1943 Viktor Ullmann composed an opera entitled The Emperor of Atlantis. Peter Kien, another prisoner, wrote the libretto. The opera consists of four short scenes depicting a tyrannical Emperor whose reign is interrupted when Death goes on strike. Baritones represent the voices of Death and the Emperor while a soprano and tenor are the heroes of the piece. The Emperor of Atlantis was recently performed in Toronto by the Canadian Opera Company.
Franz E. Klein staged the operas Carmen, La Tosca, and Rigoletto at Terezin, with the help of conductor and chorus-master Rafael Schachter. Male and female prisoners staged several cabaret shows in the ghetto, satirizing their fascist persecutors. Karel Fleishmann (who was also a physician), Otto Ungar, Peter Kien, and Ferdinand Bloch were painters who gave their lives to leave behind a record of the atrocities which took place in the ghetto. Each were executed after guards discovered some of their works depicted the awful conditions in which they lived.
The art of the children retains a refreshing optimism not often found in the work of the adults of Terezin. Perhaps the adults were more conscious of the distress of their situation and the children more naive. The subject of the children’s art depicts their former lives of normalcy, whereas the adults’ work depicts the horrors surrounding them. Both children and adults used drawing and painting as a medium of expression, as well as poetry and prose.
The prisoners used any materials they could find to create their works. Their media ranged from charcoal on the back of blank office forms to pastels on semi-glossy paper. Many of the children created ornate collages using the office forms and other materials to represent vases filled with flowers, their former homes, and the ghetto itself. Other children showed promise in non-representational art. Twelve-year-old Hana Lissauova created an abstract collage called Fantasy. One can only guess the pride and satisfaction these artists must have felt upon creating such beautiful works.
Some of the most important remnants of the prisoners’ work are pencil drawings depicting every day life in the ghetto. These drawings lend us a nearly photographic representation of life behind those formidable walls. We are also left with representations of the prisoner’s themselves, thanks to Stanisla Geisler and Karel Stech, who drew portraits of their friends and fellow inmates. Alois Bucanek left behind a number of drawings depicting ill and dying inmates.
As of April 20, 1945, and in less than 4 years time, 141,000 Jews were imprisoned in Terezin. Of those, 33,456 died in the ghetto; 88,202 were transported to death camps in the East. Of the 15,000 children deported from Theresienstadt to Aushwitz, 100 survived. On May 9, 1945, Theresienstadt was liberated. 16,832 surviving Jews remained in a place meant to hold a population of no more than 8,000. Statistics hardly do justice to conveying the injustice suffered by those who lived and died at Terezin.
In 1945, a National Cemetery
was founded outside the "Little Fortress" and in 1947, Terezin officially
became the Terezin Memorial. The Little Fortress houses a museum which
serves as an art gallery featuring anti-fascist and anti-war themes. There
is also a commemorative spot which holds soil from each of the concentration
camps to which the prisoners were deported.
Annihilating an entire race of people from the earth was Hitler’s
failed Final Solution. For the persecuted race, the final solution was
liberation from this genocidal maniac. For those who endured the dark years
in between, art provided an escape through expression. Terezin’s
artists lived for the rare moments when they could set aside physical work
for the intellect, when creativity nullified destruction, dignity superceded
humiliation, and hope replaced doom. In those precious hours, the impulse
to live and create allowed the men, women, and children of Terezin to cheat
their own deaths.