Soils
The soil of Greece is mostly very rocky and very dry, but the country is interspersed with
small valleys where the soils are of the rich Mediterranean terra rosa, or red earth,
variety.
Population
The population of Greece is about 98 percent ethnic Greek. About 1 percent of the
population is classified by the Greek government as Muslim. Most of the Muslims are of
Turkish descent. About 100,000 Muslims live in Thrace. The remainder of the population
includes people of Slavic, Albanian, and Armenian descent, as well as Vlachs, a people who
speak a Romanian dialect.
Population Characteristics
The population of Greece at the 1991 census was 10,264,156. The estimated population in
1994 was 10,564,630, giving the country an overall population density of about 80 persons
per sq km (about 207 per sq mi). The population of Greece is very large in relation to the
size and economic capacity of the country, and much poverty exists. Both the birthrate
(formerly one of the highest in Europe) and the death rate have declined in recent years,
and in the mid-1990s the annual rate of population growth was less than 1 percent. About
63 percent of the population is urban. Much of the urban population is concentrated around
Athens, around Thessalon�ki (Salonika) in Macedonia, in the western Pelop�nnisos, and on
the islands. K�rkira, Z�kinthos (Zante), and Kh�os are among the most densely populated
islands. Famous ancient cities such as �rgos, Corinth, and Sparta are only small towns
today.
Political Divisions
Under a reorganization plan introduced in 1987, Greece is divided for administrative
purposes into 13 regions (diamerismata), which are subdivided into departments (nomoi).
The 13 regions, with their populations according to the 1991 census, are Northern Aegean
(198,241), Southern Aegean (257,522), Attica (3,522,769), Crete (536,980), Epirus
(339,210), Central Greece (578,876), Western Greece (655,262), Ionian Islands (191,003),
Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (570,261), Central Macedonia (1,737,623), Western Macedonia
(292,751), Pelop�nnisos (605,663), and Thessaly (731,230). The 1975 constitution
recognizes Mount Athos (population, 1981, 1472), located on the Khalkidhik� Peninsula in
northeastern Greece, as an autonomous district. Mount Athos is the site of several
well-known monasteries and has a monastic administration. Municipalities, or demes (cities
that have more than 100,000 inhabitants), are administered by a mayor and a city council,
and communities that have 300 to 10,000 inhabitants by a president and a community
council.
Principal Cities
The largest and most important city is Athens, the capital, with a population (1991) of
748,110. Pirai�vs, seaport of Athens, is the largest port of Greece, with a population of
169,622. Thessalon�ki, with a population of 377,951, is an important textile center, and
P�trai, on the northern part of the Pelop�nnisos, is a major seaport, with 155,180
inhabitants. Other sizable cities include Ir�klion (117,167), and L�risa (113,426).
Religion
About 98 percent of the people are followers of the Orthodox Church of Greece. The
remaining 2 percent of the population includes Muslims, Roman Catholics, Protestants, and
Jews.
Language
The great majority of the people of Greece speak Modern Greek (see Greek Language). The
vernacular Modern Greek and language of popular literature is Demotike, as opposed to
Katharevousa, a more formal modern Greek or purist Greek. Demotike became the official
language of Greece by an act of parliament in 1976. It is used by the government, the
newspapers, and educational institutions. Great differences exist between the language of
the educated classes and that used by the majority of the people. English and French are
widely spoken.
Education
Education is free and compulsory in Greece for all children between the ages of 6 and 15.
In 1928, some 40 percent of the people aged 15 or more years were illiterate. By the
mid-1990s the illiteracy rate had declined to about 7 percent. Elementary and Secondary
Schools All villages and towns have primary schools, and many have high schools. In the
early 1990s some 13,230 preprimary and primary schools had a combined annual enrollment of
about 976,500 pupils. The approximately 3470 secondary and vocational schools were
attended by about 843,730 students. Universities and Colleges Greece has nine
universities: the National and Capodistrian University of Athens (1837); the Aristotelian
University of Thessalon�ki (1925); the National Technical University of Athens (1836);
the Demokritos University of Thrace (1973), in Komotin�; the University of Io�nnina
(1964); the University of P�trai (1964); the University of Crete (1973); the Technical
University of Crete (1977); and the University of the Aegean (1984), with branches in
Athens, Kh�os, Mitilin�, R�dhos, and S�mos. Other institutions of higher education
include the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (1881); the Athens School of
Economics and Business Science (1920); the Higher School of Fine Arts (1836), in Athens;
the British School at Athens (1886); the French School of Athens (1846); and the Graduate
School of Industrial Studies at Thessalon�ki (1957). In the early 1990s about 194,400
students were enrolled in higher education.
Way of Life
Most Greeks wear Western clothing, although traditional clothing continues to be worn in
some rural areas. There are two types of traditional clothing for men: on the mainland men
wear a foustanela (skirt), while a type of baggy trousers called a vraka is worn on the
Aegean Islands and Crete. The traditional clothing for women consists of a kavadi (a dress
of thick, often gold-woven, silk brocade) worn over a poukamiso (chemise); a kondogouni
(tightly fitted velvet jacket) is worn over the poukamiso and a fessi (tasseled cap)
completes the outfit. Popular foods include avgolimono (egg-lemon soup), moussaka
(eggplant casserole), souvlakia (skewered meat), and baklava (nut-filled pastry). Greeks
enjoy retsina wine and ouzo, a strong aperitif made from grape stems and flavored with
anise. Traditional houses have whitewashed walls, long, narrow windows, and tiled roofs.
Urban housing includes tall apartment buildings. The country's favorite sports are soccer,
basketball, and track-and-field events. Among the arts and crafts are ceramics,
embroidery, jewelry-making, and leather goods.
Culture
The culture of ancient Greece had a major influence on the development of Western
civilization. For information on Greek culture, see Drama and Dramatic Arts; Greek Art and
Architecture; Greek Literature; Greek Music; Greek Philosophy; Greek Mythology; Olympian
Games.
Libraries and Museums
Many noteworthy museums are devoted to Greek antiquities and archaeology. These include
the National Archaeological Museum (1874), the Byzantine Museum (1914), and the Acropolis
Museum (1878), all of which are in Athens. The Old Archaeological Museum (1886), at
Olympia, contains the world's largest collection of Greek Geometric and Archaic bronzes.
The archaeological museum in Ir�klion (Candia) on Crete has an outstanding collection of
Minoan and early Greek antiquities. Noted museums in Athens featuring displays of more
recent art include the National Art Gallery and Alexander Soutzos Museum (1900), and the
Benaki Museum (1930). The National Library of Greece (1828), also in Athens, has
approximately 2 million volumes.
Economy
Agriculture plays an important role in the Greek economy. Infant industries established in
the period after World War I (1914-1918) were, to a large extent, destroyed during World
War II (1939-1945) and the subsequent civil war. Development of the manufacturing sector
of the economy since then has been hampered by the lack of fuel and difficulties in
utilizing the hydroelectric potential of the country. By 1970, however, the contribution
of manufacturing to the annual national output surpassed that of agriculture for the first
time. Two major sources of income for Greece are shipping and tourism. The production of
petroleum from fields in the northern Aegean Sea began to aid the economy in the early
1980s. Since the 1950s the public sector of the economy has grown considerably; the
government now controls about 60 percent of the economy, particularly in energy,
shipbuilding, communications, transportation, insurance, and banking. The estimated
national budget in the early 1990s included approximately $48 billion in revenues and $48
billion in expenditures.
Agriculture
About 21 percent of the Greek labor force is engaged in farming, and agriculture
constitutes about 15 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Since the 1970s the number
of people engaged in agriculture has declined significantly as people have moved to urban
areas seeking employment in the manufacturing and service industries. Agricultural
productivity is not adequate for the heavy burden placed on this sector of the economy.
Farms are small, subdivision through inheritance having reduced the average size to
approximately 3.4 hectares (about 8 acres), and consequently it is difficult to use
mechanized equipment efficiently. In addition, yields are low because of the dryness and
erosion of the soil. Tobacco is a leading cash crop and accounts for about 3 percent of
annual export income. The approximate yearly output of major crops (in metric tons) in the
early 1990s was sugar beets, 3.2 million; wheat, 2.9 million; corn, 2 million; olives, 1.7
million; tomatoes, 1.7 million; grapes, 1.3 million; peaches and nectarines, 1.1 million;
potatoes, 965,000; oranges, 872,000; and tobacco, 182,000. Livestock included
approximately 27 million poultry, 9.7 million sheep, 5.8 million goats, 1.2 million pigs,
and 616,000 head of cattle.
Forestry and Fishing
The Greek government owns about two-thirds of the forestland and has taken steps to
replace the trees that were destroyed during World War II. About 2.4 million cu m (about
85 million cu ft) of roundwood were cut annually in the early 1990s. Fishing is limited.
In the early 1990s the annual catch amounted to about 149,000 metric tons, most of which
was consumed within Greece. Sponges are the leading marine commodity produced for export.
Mining
Although mining is of relatively little importance to the Greek economy, a considerable
variety of mineral deposits is exploited. The approximate annual output of minerals (in
metric tons) in the early 1990s included lignite, 51.9 million; bauxite, 2.5 million; iron
ore, 1 million; and magnesite, 900,000. Petroleum, salt, chromium, silver, zinc, and lead
were also produced.
Manufacturing
About 19 percent of the labor force is engaged in manufacturing, which contributes 15
percent of annual GDP. The leading fabricated items include food, basic metals and metal
products, refined petroleum, and machinery and transportation equipment. Athens is the
leading manufacturing center.
Energy
About 90 percent of Greece's electricity is produced in thermal facilities burning lignite
or refined petroleum, and the rest is generated in hydroelectric installations, which are
mainly situated on the Akhel��s River in the Pindus Mountains. In the early 1990s Greece
had an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 10.5 million kilowatts, and
annual production was some 35 billion kilowatt-hours.
Currency and Banking
The monetary unit of Greece is the drachma (233 drachmas equal U.S.$1; 1995). The central
banking institution is the state-controlled Bank of Greece, which also issues the
currency. The largest commercial banks are the National Bank of Greece, with about 470
domestic branches, and the Agricultural Bank of Greece, with 420 branches. Special
financial institutions have been established by the government to provide loans for
industrial and agricultural development.
Foreign Trade
Greece generally spends much more each year on imports than it takes in from sales of
exports. This imbalance is offset to a certain extent by tourist revenues and by
remittances from Greek citizens working abroad. Greece also depends upon foreign loans and
investments to close the gap between earnings from exports and payments for imports. In
the late 1980s the value of imports amounted to $12 billion, and exports earned $5.9
billion. By the early 1990s the value of imports had increased to $23.2 billion and
exports to $9.9 billion as a result of increased trade with Greece's European Union
partners. The chief imports were machinery and transportation equipment, food and live
animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, and industrial raw materials. The
main exports were clothing, textiles, and furs; fruit and vegetables; beverages and
tobacco; petroleum products; nonferrous metal; and iron and steel. Germany, Italy, France,
Great Britain, the Netherlands, and other countries of the European Union account for more
than 60 percent of Greece's yearly total trade. Japan and the United States are also
important trading partners.
Tourism
In the early 1990s more than 9 million tourists visited Greece annually to see the
antiquities and to vacation in the sunny Mediterranean climate. Receipts from tourism
amounted to about $3.3 billion a year. In 1992 about 23 percent of the tourists were from
Great Britain and 20 percent were from Germany. Favorite tourist destinations include
Athens, Crete, K�rkira, Kos, Rhodes, and Santor�ni.
Transportation
After World War II Greece's transportation system was completely reconstructed and greatly
expanded. By the early 1990s the country had about 130,000 km (about 80,800 mi) of roads,
of which about 79 percent were paved. In the early 1990s Greece had about 1,790,900
passenger cars and 817,700 trucks and buses. Almost all of the country's 2527 km (1570 mi)
of operated railroad track is part of the government-run rail system. The merchant fleet,
consisting of more than 2100 ships with a gross registered tonnage of about 29 million, is
among the largest in the world and is almost entirely privately owned. The leading Greek
seaports are Pirai�vs, P�trai, Thessalon�ki, and Elevs�s. The Corinth Canal is an
important link between the Gulf of Corinth and the Gulf of Saronik�s. The national
airline is Olympic Airways, which provides domestic and international service. The busiest
airports serve Athens, Thessalon�ki, and Alexandro�polis.
Communications
Radio and television broadcasting services in Greece are both privately owned and
state-owned. In the early 1990s the country had about 4.2 million radios and over 2
million television sets. More than 90 percent of all households have radios and television
sets, and 75 percent have telephones. Most of the leading Greek daily newspapers are
published in Athens or Thessalon�ki. Dailies with large circulations include
Apogevmatini, Eleftherotypia, and Ta Nea, all issued in Athens. The government had a
monopoly on television broadcasting until 1990, when two private stations began operation.
However, government supervision of all radio and television broadcasting is
constitutionally protected.
Labor
Trade unions are organized locally on a craft basis. In each town or industrial region is
a labor center, to which the local unions belong, and all the members of the same craft
belong to national federations. Most of the labor centers and federations are under the
aegis of the General Confederation of Greek Workers, which was founded in 1918 and has
more than 700,000 members.
Government
In September 1968, the Greek electorate approved a new constitution drawn up by the ruling
military junta. The charter retained the hereditary monarchy, declaring Greece to be a
"crowned democracy," but the king was deprived of much of the authority vested
in him by the constitution of 1952. On June 1, 1973, the Council of Ministers abolished
the monarchy and proclaimed Greece a republic. The junta resigned and civilian government
was restored in July 1974; Greek voters declined to reestablish the monarchy in a
referendum the following December. On June 11, 1975, a new republican constitution took
effect.
Executive
Under the 1975 constitution, as amended, the president of Greece is head of state and
commander in chief of the armed forces. The president, who is elected by parliament to a
five-year term, designates a premier from the majority (or strongest) party in parliament
and must accept the cabinet the premier names; however, under extraordinary circumstances,
the president may dismiss the premier and cabinet after consultation with the Council of
the Republic, an advisory body consisting of present and former major officials. The
president may also veto legislation, suspend parliament for up to 30 days, and dissolve
parliament and call for new elections.
Legislature
The national parliament of Greece, called the Vouli, is a unicameral body specified in the
constitution as having no fewer than 200 and not more than 300 members. They are chosen in
direct elections for a maximum of four years. The exact number of parliamentarians is
specified in legislation, not the constitution. Electoral laws have often varied as ruling
parties have tried to modify the laws to gain a particular advantage. In the mid-1990s the
parliament was composed of 300 members. The legislature is divided into three working
sections; the full parliament deals only with the most important matters of state.
Parliament may impeach the president or any other government official by a two-thirds
vote; the official is then tried by a special panel of judges.
Political Parties
The 1975 constitution of Greece guarantees the right to "freely establish and
participate in political parties." The largest parties in the late 1980s and early
1990s were the Democratic Center Union; New Democracy; Panhellenic Socialist Movement
(Pasok); and the United Left Alliance, a coalition of two Communist party factions.
Political parties are often organized around strong leaders rather than policies.
Judiciary
Ordinary civil and criminal cases are tried in courts of first instance, from which
appeals may be made to the courts of appeal and finally to the Supreme Court. The 1975
constitution established the Special Supreme Tribunal to deal with the highest
constitutional issues. Judges of the higher courts, including the Supreme Court and the
Special Supreme Tribunal, are appointed for life through civil service promotions from
lower courts. They may only be removed if convicted of criminal offense.
Local Government
The country's 13 administrative regions (diamerismata) are subdivided into 51 departments
(nomoi). Each department is administered by a nomarch who is appointed by the minister of
interior. In the unique case of Mount Athos, the government appoints a civil governor
responsible for public order outside the monasteries. Municipal governments have
democratically elected mayors and urban and rural councils. Local authorities may levy
some taxation, although the tax base is generally inadequate and most regional services
are supported by the central government. See also Population: Political Divisions, above.
Defense
Greece has compulsory military service for all men between 18 and 40 years of age, with no
allowances for the exemption of conscientious objectors. Conscription lasts from 19 to 23
months, depending on the branch of service. In the early 1990s the Greek army had about
113,000 members; the navy, 20,000 members; and the air force, 27,000 members. Since 1978
women have been permitted to serve in special sections of the armed forces.
International Organizations
Greece is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe, and the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The country became a member
of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1972 and the Conference on Security
and Cooperation in Europe (now called the Organization on Security and Cooperation in
Europe) in 1975. Greece joined the European Community (now called the European Union) in
1981. In 1992 the country was admitted as the tenth member of the Western European Union
(WEU), the defense arm of the European Union.
History
The Greek peninsula has been culturally linked with the Aegean Islands and the west coast
of Asia Minor since the Neolithic Age. The many natural harbors along the coasts of Greece
and the multiplicity of close-lying islands led to the development of a homogeneous,
maritime civilization. But cultural homogeneity did not induce political unity. Mountain
ranges and deep valleys cut the peninsula into small economic and political units, each
little larger than a city with its surrounding territory. For a detailed history of the
most famous city-states, see Athens; Corinth; Sparta; Thebes.