Historical accounts of the Netherlands date from the 1st century, when Roman forces conquered Germanic and Celtic tribes inhabiting the area. Under Roman rule, peace and prosperity prevailed for more than 250 years. About 300 AD German tribes invaded from the east. The Franks the most powerful of the invaders, subjugated local tribes and converted them to Christianity.

By 800 the territory was ruled by Charlemagne the greatest of the Frankish kings. During the 9th and 10th centuries, Scandinavian Vikings frequently raided the coastal areas and sailed far up the rivers. These raids led to the emergence of fortified towns. In the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, the area became an important trading center, and wealthy merchants in the towns challenged the power of the nobles who ruled the countryside.

The Netherlands and the surrounding area, known as the Low Countries, passed from the control of the dukes of Burgundy during the early 16th century into the hands of the Habsburg emperor Charles V, who held territories throughout Europe. In 1555 Charles granted control of Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II, whose oppressive rule led to a war of independence waged by the Dutch from 1568 to 1648. A well-organized Protestant church movement developed in the Netherlands, and the disaffection with Catholic Spain coincided with the Protestant revolt against the Roman Catholic church. In 1566 anti-Catholic riots spread across the country. Philip sent Spanish troops, whose harsh actions resulted in open revolt. William of Nassau, prince of Orange, led the revolt and eventually took control of most northern towns.

In 1579 the Union of Utrecht, an alliance of all northern and some southern territories, was formed. The provinces that joined the union would become the Netherlands; those that did not would become Belgium. In 1581 the Union of Utrecht proclaimed independence from Spain. The new nation suffered a series of reverses in the war with Spain, but eventually the tide turned. In 1648 the Spanish recognized the sovereignty of the Dutch Republic. About 1600 a merchant expedition of three vessels sailed from Amsterdam to Indonesia, the first of numerous journeys that resulted in lucrative Dutch trading stations throughout the world.

By the mid-17th century the Netherlands was the foremost commercial and maritime power of Europe, and Amsterdam was the financial center of the continent. Inevitably, the Dutch and the English, the leading maritime trading nations, came into conflict. Two Anglo-Dutch Wars were waged during the 1650s and 1660s. Other wars, costly in lives and money, followed against England and France. Eventually the Dutch Republic was overshadowed by the expanding power of Great Britain at sea and France on land. In the late 18th century a struggle broke out between conservatives and those who desired democratic reforms. The conflict became moot after Napoleon I incorporated the Low Countries into the French Empire in 1810.

After the fall of Napoleon, the Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed, with the addition of the territory that is now Belgium, but the union was short-lived. In 1830 the Belgians revolted and established their independence. The second half of the 19th century witnessed a liberalization of government. Suffrage was gradually extended, the administration of the colonies was reformed, and agitation for social reform increased. From about 1880 to 1914 the Netherlands enjoyed an era of economic expansion.

During World War I (1914-1918), the nation suffered hardship through loss of trade as a result of the Allied blockade of the Continent.

During World War II (1939-1945), the Netherlands was occupied by the Germans and suffered heavy destruction. The years following the war were marked by intensive efforts to rebuild the country and to restore trade and industry.

In the colonies, the Netherlands lost a war against nationalists in Indonesia, which gained its independence in 1949. Netherlands New Guinea gained its independence in 1962; Suriname in 1975. Since the 1960s coalition governments have ruled the Netherlands, led in the 1960s by the Roman Catholic People's Party, from 1973 to 1977 by the Labor Party, and from 1977 to 1994 by the Christian Democratic Party. The Labor Party assumed control of the Dutch government again in 1994. In 1995 the Dutch battled serious flooding when rivers throughout northwestern Europe overflowed. Damages and evacuation expenses were estimated at more than $1 billion.

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