The legacy of the Maya is finally being revealed in all its glory. Through excavation, the deciphering of an ancient language and diligent research, archeologists are learning more about this gifted people who developed a calendar as accurate as the one we use today, were highly-skilled astronomers, astrologers, urban planners and mathematicians. They built grand cities with monumental temples (the word "pyramid" was introduced by the Spaniards to describe these structures) without the use of metal tools. Each urban area was carefully planned with temples and palaces in the center and a nearby ballcourt for the famous pre-Hispanic team sport. The thatched-roof wattle and daub or adobe houses of the common people were usually located at a fair distance from the center.
The most important Mayan contribution to world architecture was the Korbel Arch, also called the Mayan Arch, a false arch formed by projecting stone blocks out from each side of a wall until they met forming a peak. This technique was a handy substitute for a true arch. When it came to mathematics, time and calendars, the Maya were geniuses. Believing that time was cyclical, they devised two calendars, one of which was ritualistic and used for religious celebrations and astrological predictions (260 days). The other was a solar calendar and was based on the calculation that a year had around 365 days. Both calendars were interrelated and taken together gave a more precise count than the Gregorian calendar. Following the movements of the sun, moon and stars with such exactitude, astronomers were able to predict such mystifying phenomena as eclipses and the Spring and Autumn equinoxes. The construction of the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichén Itzá in Yucatán is so precise, for example, during each equinox, the setting sun casts a shadow on the steps in the same spot, forming the shape of a giant serpent that appears to slither down the side of the building. Temples at Dzibilchaltún also in Yucatán and Edzná in Campeche have chambers where lovely solar alignments take place every year. At the former, long streams of sunbeams hit the exact center of two windows opposite each other and at Edzná, the mask of the sun god is beautifully illuminated.
The Maya were the first Mesoamerican civilization to conceive the zero and they used it long before it was discovered by others in different latitudes. Instead of the decimal system, however, they used a vigesimal count, multiplying by 20 instead of 10. Eventually they used the katun or a 20-year period to record the passage of time. It's also worth mentioning that the Maya were familiar with the wheel but used it only in children's toys.
Deciphering Mayan hieroglyphics
Another mark of their brilliance was the hieroglyphic writing system they developed. Glyphs adorn stelae and temples throughout the Maya World and it is now known that the Maya erected stelae to commemorate historical events. Interpreting glyphs was a major stumbling block for Mayanists until 20 years ago when a team of Mexican and U.S. experts broke the code at Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico. Archeologists have since been able to decipher many of the glyph sequences and even identify some of the rulers of cities such as Palenque and Yaxchilán in Chiapas and Piedras Negras and Tikal in Guatemala. The well-known Hieroglyphic Stairway at Copán is another outstanding example of the use of the language it is a monument to the achievements of the royal dynasty and is probably the longest history book about the Maya civilization.
Unfortunately, many Mayan books or codices, manuscripts written on deerskin or amate, a type of paper made from tree bark, were destroyed by fanatical Spanish priests during 16th-century auto da fes; others succumbed to the ravages of time. To date, only three, one of which is the famous Dresden codex, have been recovered. Archeologists studying the codices have discovered that they include passages on mythology, history, religion, astrology and science. For example, the Dresden Codex is thought to contain information on eclipses and the movements of Venus. The Maya also had an oral tradition which was strongly embedded in the culture and which grew stronger after the codices were destroyed.
A text of the ancient Popul Vuh or "Book of Advice", a manuscript written in the Maya Quiché language of Guatemala, was discovered by a Spanish friar in the 17th century and rescued from oblivion. Translated into Spanish by the monk, the Popol Vuh is the Maya creation story which describes how the gods formed the earth from chaos and brought forth light and life. They then created man from corn to be the guardian of the world. To this day, the Maya hold the land sacred.
In Yucatán, Mexico, the "Chilam Balam", a book of history, astrology, medicine and prophecies written in Maya but using Latin script instead of glyphs was also found and preserved.
Ancient Artists
The Maya were fine sculptors who carved beautifully-proportioned figures in perfect balance and harmony on stelae, lintels and friezes decorating the walls of temples. Such stone carvings depict human sacrifice, bloodletting ceremonies and other purification rituals while others show richly attired rulers with splendid headdresses, gods, geometric designs, birds and animals.
Pottery-making also developed into an art. The clay pots, dried in the open air instead of being baked in kilns, were just as likely to turn up in a householder's kitchen as at a temple ritual. Ceremonial pieces were often painted with mythological figures. While gold jewelry has been recovered at many sites, some of the finest pieces, showing the greatest workmanship, are actually carved from jade. Jadeite was highly prized and used as an offering to the gods or as an adornment by the nobility. People also hung pieces of jade, carved in the shape of an animal or a bead, around their neck to ward off illness.
The Social Pyramid
The Maya had rigidly defined social classes. At the top of the hierarchy was the ruler who was the representative of the gods on earth. He governed, decided when it was time go to war, make peace, trade or marital alliances. He was supported by the priest caste, the nobility and his warriors. and dealt with the priests. Only the ruler and his priests were allowed to climb the temple pyramids and then only to perform ceremonies.
Other groups in the social structure were architects who were higher than sculptors, potters and other artisans and farmers, servants and slaves, the lowest categories. Soldiers became important in time of conflict but, otherwise, fell below somewhere below architects in the social scale as did traders.
The majority of the Maya were farmers who sustained the minority ruling class with their crops of corn, beans and other vegetables. There is evidence that they used the slash and burn system to clear the fields for planting, just as their descendents do today. They also used irrigation in arid areas, raised beds and terraced field in the highlands. The Maya diet was supplemented by wild game, fish, fruit, nuts, seeds and honey harvested from the forest.
The economy also depended on commerce and the Maya were traders par excellence who bartered fish, honey, shells, obsidian, jade, pottery, salt, cacao, feathers, flint and cotton. Their trade routes followed major rivers in the area and the Pacific, Gulf and Caribbean coasts. Their trading empire extended from Central America to central Mexico, if not beyond these frontiers.
Mayan Gods
Religion played an integral part of everyday life and events, both large and small were ruled by certain deities. The priest, who became a powerful figure by the Classic period, led the community in spiritual matters.
Specific rituals were reenacted to claim the attention of the deities. For example, pregnant women would visit a temple of Ixchel, the goddess of childbirth, for blessings before a child was born. In fact, mothers-to-be often made pilgrimmages to the island of Cozumel in Mexico, which was under her protection.
Other gods ruled over the wind, sun, heaven, corn, war and death. Perhaps the most important deity was the rain god, Chac, whose worship was performed in earnest throughout the empire. In many Yucatecan sites, carved figures of Chac depicted with a long, curled nose, adorn the facades of temples. The plumed serpent became a major deity in the Yucatán with the arrival of the Toltecs in the 10th century A.D. These warlike aliens from central Mexico worshipped the god under the name of Quetzalcoatl. The Mayans merely changed the name to Kukulcán and dedicated a temple to the new god at Chichén Itzá.
Rituals honoring the gods sometimes took the form of human sacrifices. Strange reclining human figures holding bowls in their laps are found in Chichén Itzá and other Yucatecan sites. Known as Chac Mools, these figures supposedly received a living heart when a victim was sacrificed. Cenotes, the natural fresh water wells of the Yucatán Peninsula were also the site of sacrifices. The most famous cenotes used for ritual sacrifices is at Chichén Itzá. Along with humans, gold, jade, pottery and other objects were thrown into the well as gifts to the gods.
Religious beliefs were intimately linked to burial rituals which, in the case of rulers, were very elaborate. In 1952 Mexican archeologist Alberto Ruíz Llhuilleur discovered the tomb of Lord Pakal inside the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque. His findings revealed that the Maya had similar burial practices to the ancient Egyptians: entombing rulers inside pyramids, building false chambers, and burying grave goods and servants to accompany the deceased in the afterlife.
Pakal's stone crypt was covered with hieroglyphics and surrounded by gold, pottery and other riches. The carved lid of the sarcophagus weighs five tons and is still on display in the tomb, deep in the heart of the Temple of Inscriptions. A fine jade mask covered the ruler's face and seven companions were found buried with him. According to anthropologists, the mask was a likeness of the living features which were bound to deteriorate with time. A mask insured that the features would be recognizable when the departed one met the Lords of the Underworld after death. The size of the treasure hoard and the number of companions buried with the ruler showed his importance in the past life so that the Lords would treat him accordingly in his future life.
The ceiba (silk cotton) tree was held sacred by the Maya. They believed that it was the way station between the 13 heavens and underworlds above and below ground.
Mayan History
The Mayan civilization lasted roughly 3,000 years and its history is divided roughly into three time periods. Known as the Preclassic, the years 2000 B.C. to 250 A.D., saw the birth and rise of the Maya; from 250 A.D. to 900 A.D., during the Classic period their culture blossomed, then a transformation occurred and decline set in in the Postclassic period, from 900 A.D.to 1500 A.D. or more precisely, to 1521 when Spanish rule of Mexico began.
The Classic period was the Golden Age of the Maya, a burst of creativity which lasted for more than 600 years. Architecture, arts and science flourished and in Chiapas, Guatemala, Honduras and parts of the Yucatán Peninsula cities and dynasties reached their peak. Then just as suddenly as they had risen, major cities fell into decline and were abandoned.
Experts do not know what caused the Maya civilization to fall there are many theories. Besides invasions, it's believed that the Maya were weakened by internal strife. Some say that powerful rulers were trying to gain control of trade routes and waged war on their neighbors for this purpose. Others say that poor harvests brought about by drought or other natural disasters led to famines which decimated the population or forced them to migrate. Another theory is that the people rose up against their autocratic rulers.
Archeologists have ascertained that this decline occurred at different times in different areas, for example, ceremonial centers in lowland Chiapas and Guatemala were abandoned by the 8th century whereas many cities in the Yucatán reached their peak during the Postclassic period.
Maya civilization in the Postclassic underwent a transformation, art and architecture were a mere shadow of their former glory, trade became more important and warlike tribes from central Mexico such as the Toltecs and the later Aztecs moved into the Maya World bringing new gods and different building styles. Strife grew between rival city states and when the Spaniards invaded Maya lands in the 1520's, they encountered a divided people, weakened by ancient emnities.
By the mid-16th century the Europeans had won control of most of the Maya World after a bitter struggle. Although a few Spanish historians recorded the discovery of ruined temples, it wasn't until the 19th century that the world learned of the existence of ancient cities in the jungle. Intrepid adventurers such as Count Waldeck, John L. Stephens and artist Frederick Catherwood visited the sites and wrote about them. For many years, intellectuals speculated that the fabulous ruins were actually the legacy of the lost tribes of Israel or survivors from Atlantis.
These early explorers were the pioneers of Maya archeology. Since they first wrote about the area, countless excavations have been carried out at sites such as Uxmal, Palenque, Tulum and Chichén Itzá in Mexico, Guatemala's magnificent ancient capital of Tikal and Copán in Honduras, a far-flung outpost of the empire. Caracol and Lamanai are just two of the ancient cities in Belize currently being studied and El Salvador also has its own sites, the most famous of which is Joya de Cerén. Discovered in the 1980s, this 7th-century farming village was buried under 14 layers of volcanic ash and is one of the most exciting finds to date in the Maya World. Hailed as the "New World Pompeii", it is yielding information about the Maya peasantry, a group about whom very little is known.
Throughout the Maya World, archeologists are striving to learn more about the ancient inhabitants of the area. Although great strides have been made, many secrets still remain to be unravelled.
What we know already about Mayan achievements in architecture, the arts and sciences, their political system and religious beliefs, however, is opening the door for more discoveries. Their study of astronomy and mathematics, for example, which led to the development of a superior calendar a thousand years before the Christian era began, can only mean that we've merely touched the tip of iceberg.
