The various professions attested at Nippur are spelled out in transliteration of the Sumerian characters. Occupational titles are also given in Akkadian, since that was probably the predominate spoken language at the time. The symbol � is pronounced like our sound "sh." The Sumerian and Akkadian "h" is not the same as our soft English "h," but is a much more guttural sound.
a-zu Akkadian as�, English physician, German Arzt, French m�decin. Physicians are mentioned all the way back in Early Dynastic times (before 2350 B.C.). A couple physicians are known at Nippur, namely Lu-Nin-Nibru (1811 B.C.) and Nanna-mansum (1842 B.C.). King Hammurabi's legal compilation mentions regulations on the work of the physician.
bur-gul Akkadian parkullu, English seal-cutter (according to the University Museum's Sumerian Dictionary it means stonecutter, engraver, but in the Nippur legal documents it refers to a specialized craftsman preparing clay, rather than stone, cylinder seals), German Siegelschneider (perhaps even Notar), French graveur de sceau or tailleur de sceau.
The seal-cutter performed an important function in the recording of legal transactions, similar to our notary public. Although administrative officials had expensive stone cylinder seals engraved with their names and some religious scene, a more affordable device was needed at the conclusion of court hearings or property transfers. The seal-cutter would produce a clay cylinder seal engraved in reverse relief with just the names of all those accepting legal obligations in the matter at hand. This special seal, made just for the occasion, would be rolled over the completed wet clay tablet to verify the legal record and prevent the use of a fraudulent document later.
Numerous seal-cutters were active at Nippur during our period. The most energetic seems to have been Awiliya whose career spanned 1773-1720 B.C., quite a long life in the business world of the time. He was active in the Professional Quarter on the east side of Nippur, but did some work on the west side of the city as well. Another seal-cutter was Iddishum, active in the period 1749-1721. Nergal-mansum also had a career of significant length, active 1751-1726 B.C.
dub-sar Akkadian tup�arru (the first letter is the emphatic-t, not the regular-t; like Hebrew teth), English and French scribe, German Schreiber. The scribe was a tablet (dub) writer (sar). From good quality clay, he prepared a tablet. He used a reed stylus to impress the wedge-shaped (cuneiform) characters into the surface of the tablet. This writing was thus three-dimensional, not two-dimensional or flat as ink-based writing is. Scribes prepared all sorts of legal and administrative records on clay tablets of various sizes. They also copied literary texts of religious and historical interest to them.
Many scribes are known from Nippur. Several of the better known scribes will be mentioned here. Utta-ulu-heti and Ili-u-Shamash were active from 1751-1724 B.C., Enlil-muballit from 1738-1721, and Ku-Ninimma from 1746-1739. One or two scribes by the name of Ur-Gagishshua (a hard name to represent; the G�-gish�ua was part of the Ekur complex) was/were active from 1803-1731 B.C.
muhaldim Akkadian nuhatimmu, English cook, German Koch, French cuisinier. The term should not be understood in too narrow a fashion since it included specialties such as English baker, German B�cker, French boulanger. A better rendering, although not very elegant, might be "food preparation specialist." The task of butchering is not to be excluded here either. Early scholarly Sumerian lists of professions include the muhaldim, a word which may go back to the language spoken in Sumer before the Sumerians arrived there. On the subject of cooking, see the section on Cuisine in the Reading Room.
Although a major food preparation establishment at Nippur has been excavated by archaeologists (see Three Dimensional View of Nippur), not too much is known personally about Nippur cooks. They appear occasionally in witness lists, Ea-iddinam and Tar�bum in 1749 B.C. (witnesses to proof of Nippur citizenship) and Lipit-Ishtar in 1727 B.C. (witness to the divorce case of the notorious nue� Enlil-issu, see below). The cook Ninurta-qarr�d (1760 B.C.) lived next door to a family connected to the Ninlil temple.
nu-� Akkadian ne�akku. No modern translation is available yet. The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary offers "(a dignitary)" and the Akkadische Handw�rterbuch offers "ein Kultpriester." Not very bold! The nuesh was a cultic functionary involved mostly or exclusively with Enlil's temple at Nippur. The etymology of the expression suggests "man (nu) of the shrine (�)."
The most notorious nue� known to us is Enlil-issu, son of Lugal-azida. In 1737 B.C., a contract of marriage was drawn up between Enlil-issu and Ama-sukkal, daughter of Ninurta-mansum. The financial payment (of 19 shekels of silver) and initiative for marriage seem to come from the bride rather than from the groom to his father-in-law. A broken tablet from four years later seems to indicate further payment of 5 shekels of silver by Ama-sukkal to Enlil-issu. Another six years later (1727 B.C.), a judgment was issued against Enlil-issu. He chose to dissolve the inchoate marriage contracted 10 years earlier and made false accusations against his bride to avoid the financial consequences of his decision. He failed in his slander and had to return the money given to him. For more information on this case, see the Reading Room's section on Marriage.
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